Mount Rushmore Protests: Native American Resistance and the Sacred Black Hills

Mount Rushmore, carved into the granite of the Black Hills in South Dakota, is celebrated by many as a monument to American democracy. Yet for Native Americans—particularly the Lakota Sioux—it stands as a desecration of sacred land and a symbol of broken treaties. The Black Hills, known to the Lakota as He Sapa or “The Heart of Everything That Is,” were guaranteed to them by the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie. But the discovery of gold in the 1870s led the U.S. government to seize the land, sparking decades of resistance. In the 20th century, activists brought that resistance to the monument itself, occupying Mount Rushmore in 1970 and 1971 to demand that the treaty be honored. This article explores the history behind these protests, the cultural significance of the Black Hills, and the ongoing struggle for justice.

The Sacred Black Hills and the Broken Treaty

For centuries, the Black Hills have been a spiritual and cultural sanctuary for numerous tribes, including the Lakota, Shoshone, Salish, Kootenai, Crow, Mandan, and Arikara. The Lakota consider the hills the center of their world, a place of creation stories and sacred sites. In 1868, the U.S. government signed the Treaty of Fort Laramie with the Sioux, which set aside the Black Hills for their “absolute and undisturbed use and occupation.” The treaty, signed by General William T. Sherman and Sioux leaders, was meant to ensure peace and sovereignty.

However, the 1874 expedition led by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer confirmed the presence of gold in the Black Hills, triggering a rush of miners and settlers. The U.S. government, unwilling to enforce the treaty, pressured the Sioux to cede the land. When they refused, the government simply confiscated it in 1877, despite the treaty’s clear provisions. This act of expropriation remains a festering wound. As Gerard Baker, a Mandan-Hidatsa who served as superintendent of Mount Rushmore from 2004 to 2010, noted, “Indigenous people knew the land centuries before white people had ever seen it.” The 1763 Proclamation and subsequent treaties failed to protect Native lands from encroachment, setting a pattern that would repeat across the continent.

Resistance and the 1970-1971 Occupations

The seizure of the Black Hills sparked immediate resistance. Warriors like Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse led armed struggles, culminating in the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876 and the tragic Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890. But the fight for the Black Hills continued into the 20th century through legal and political means. In 1927, sculptor Gutzon Borglum began carving the faces of four presidents into Mount Rushmore—a project that many Native Americans viewed as an affront, especially because it was located on land that rightfully belonged to the Sioux.

On August 29, 1970, a group led by the San Francisco-based United Native Americans climbed to the top of Mount Rushmore and set up camp, protesting the broken treaty. The following year, on June 6, 1971, the American Indian Movement (AIM) occupied the monument. Among the participants was 12-year-old Marcella Gilbert, daughter of AIM leader Madonna Thunderhawk. Gilbert recalled the event as “cool” but tense, and she watched as federal agents later raided their camp, tearing through tents and confiscating food. Twenty protesters—nine men and eleven women—were arrested. These occupations drew national attention to Native American grievances and highlighted the ongoing struggle for treaty rights. The Wounded Knee Massacre and the American Indian Movement are key chapters in this history of resistance.

The Presidents on the Mountain: A Complex Legacy

The four presidents immortalized on Mount Rushmore—George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln—are celebrated for their contributions to the United States, but each also played a role in the oppression of Native Americans. Washington was dubbed “Town Destroyer” by the Iroquois after ordering the destruction of their settlements in 1779. Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Independence, laid the groundwork for aggressive Indian removal policies. Roosevelt, in an 1886 speech, said, “I don’t go so far as to think that the only good Indians are the dead Indians, but I believe nine out of every 10 are.” Lincoln, while preserving the Union, signed the order for the largest mass execution in U.S. history—the hanging of 38 Dakota in Minnesota in 1862. Baker argues that while these presidents did good for the country, they also contributed to the oppression of Native cultures. The monument, therefore, represents a dual narrative: one of national pride and one of Native dispossession.

Legal Acknowledgment and Continued Struggle

In 1980, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians that the Black Hills had been taken illegally and awarded the Sioux $105 million in compensation. The Sioux rejected the money, demanding the return of the land instead. The funds remain in a government account, untouched. This legal victory, while significant, did not resolve the underlying issue: the sacred land remains in federal hands, and Mount Rushmore stands as a painful reminder of broken promises. The bison, central to Lakota culture, also symbolizes the interconnectedness of land and spirituality that the monument disrupts.

Historical Context & Key Cultural Takeaways

• 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie guaranteed the Black Hills to the Lakota, but the discovery of gold led to illegal seizure.
• 1970 and 1971 occupations of Mount Rushmore by Native activists highlighted treaty violations and drew national attention.
• The four presidents honored on the monument had complex legacies that included policies harmful to Native Americans.
• 1980 Supreme Court ruling awarded compensation, but the Sioux refused it, insisting on the return of the land.
• The Black Hills remain sacred to the Lakota and other tribes, and the struggle for return continues.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why did Native Americans protest Mount Rushmore?
They protested because the monument was carved into the sacred Black Hills, which were guaranteed to the Lakota by treaty but illegally seized by the U.S. government. The protests aimed to draw attention to broken treaties and demand the return of the land.

What was the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie?
It was a treaty between the U.S. government and the Sioux Nation that set aside the Black Hills for the Sioux’s exclusive use. The U.S. violated the treaty after gold was discovered.

Who were the leaders of the Mount Rushmore occupations?
The 1970 occupation was led by the United Native Americans, and the 1971 occupation was led by the American Indian Movement (AIM). Key figures included Madonna Thunderhawk and her daughter Marcella Gilbert.

What happened to the $105 million awarded by the Supreme Court?
The Sioux Nation rejected the money, demanding the return of the Black Hills. The funds remain in a government account.

Are there ongoing efforts to return the Black Hills to the Sioux?
Yes, the Sioux Nation and allies continue to advocate for the return of the Black Hills through legal and political channels, though no resolution has been reached.

Cultural Legacy and Modern Preservation

The protests at Mount Rushmore were part of a broader movement for Native American rights that continues today. The monument itself has become a focal point for discussions about historical memory and justice. While the National Park Service has made efforts to include Native perspectives—such as Baker’s initiatives during his tenure—many argue that true reconciliation requires returning the land and honoring treaties. The Black Hills remain a contested landscape, and the voices of the Lakota and other tribes resonate in the ongoing struggle for sovereignty and cultural preservation.