Sitting Bull – Lakota Chief and Holy Man
By Charles A. Eastman (Ohiyesa) in 1918
"I am a red man. If the Great Spirit had desired me to be a white man he would have made me so in the first place. He put in your heart certain wishes and plans, in my heart he put other and different desires. Each man is good in his sight. It is not necessary for Eagles to be Crows. We are poor… but we are free. No white man controls our footsteps. If we must die…we die defending our rights." – Sitting Bull Hunkpapa Sioux (Tatanka Iyotake)
The task of truly understanding Sitting Bull, arguably the most famous of all Sioux chiefs to the American populace, is a considerable one. While his name resonates widely, the depth of his character and the complexities of his life often remain obscured behind simplistic and often prejudiced perceptions. He defies easy categorization, possessing a personality that was neither overtly emotional nor coldly detached. His wit was sharp, often laced with a potent sarcasm that he wielded with remarkable skill.
To comprehend Sitting Bull, one must first delve into his lineage. His father was a respected figure within the Unkpapa band of the Sioux nation. The circumstances of his father’s death were emblematic of the fierce warrior culture of the Plains Indians. In a confrontation with a large Crow war party, Jumping Buffalo, Sitting Bull’s father, engaged the enemy leader in a brutal, close-quarters combat. Such a duel, often fought with knives or other hand weapons, was considered a matter of great honor, with the victor earning the right to wear a war bonnet adorned with trailing plumes. However, the stakes were incredibly high, often resulting in the death of one or both combatants. In this particular instance, both Jumping Buffalo and his Crow adversary inflicted mortal wounds upon each other. Jumping Buffalo succumbed to his injuries shortly after the battle, leaving a legacy of bravery and sacrifice for his young son.
Sitting Bull’s early years appear to have been filled with joy and freedom. This was a period after the era of the dog-travaux (dog-drawn travois), and his father possessed numerous ponies, each boasting vibrant and distinctive colors. It was humorously remarked that Sitting Bull’s legs developed a bow-legged shape, mirroring the curvature of the ponies he rode so frequently from his childhood. He also bore a common nickname, "Hunkeshnee," which translated to "Slow." This moniker likely referred to his perceived lack of speed on foot, although it may also have alluded to his preference for traveling on horseback. During their youthful games, he often assumed the role of the "old man," which does not indicate that he was inactive or cowardly. A story recounts an incident following a buffalo hunt where the boys engaged in a mock hunt with the orphaned calves. One particularly large calf turned aggressively toward Sitting Bull, who had been thrown from his pony. Displaying remarkable courage and agility, the young Sitting Bull seized the calf by its ears and wrestled it until he forced it into a sitting position within a buffalo wallow. The other boys, witnessing this feat, exclaimed, "He has subdued the buffalo calf! He made it sit down!" This event is believed to be the origin of his now-famous name, Sitting Bull.
It is crucial to dispel the notion that Sitting Bull, or any other Native American warrior, was inherently bloodthirsty. While the nature of warfare had undoubtedly become more brutal due to the introduction of firearms, knives, and alcohol by white traders, it still largely served as a means of cultivating manly virtues in young men. Honor was derived from the degree of risk undertaken, rather than the number of enemies killed. A brave warrior was expected to mourn for thirty days, with blackened face and loosened hair, for an enemy whose life he had taken. While spoils of war were permitted, the goal was not territorial expansion or the subjugation of other nations.
In the traditional Native American code of conduct, captives were treated with respect and kindness. The widespread belief that Native Americans were naturally cruel and vengeful is a misconception that stands in stark contrast to their core values and upbringing. The propensity for revenge was largely a consequence of the injustices and betrayals inflicted upon them by the encroaching white population. It is essential to remember that it was not the inherent nature of Native Americans to be deceitful or malicious; rather, it was individuals like King Philip, Weatherford, Little Crow, and Sitting Bull, who rose in resistance after witnessing the broken promises and encroachment of the white settlers.
These leaders ultimately chose to defend their people and their way of life against the relentless tide of westward expansion, even as their fathers had initially extended hands of friendship and offered gifts to the newcomers. Before the establishment of cities on the North American continent, before the construction of bridges spanning the Mississippi River, and before the conception of the vast railroad network, there existed councils that rendered decisions based on the highest ideals of human justice.
Primitive communities thrived on the very land where bustling metropolises like Chicago and New York City now stand. In these communities, people lived in relative innocence, untouched by the crimes and moral decay that plague modern society. Simplicity in life often fosters true morality. It is a fundamental truth that the subjugation of any race invariably leads to its demoralization.
From this vantage point, we can better appreciate Sitting Bull’s journey. While he may have lacked formal literary education, he was far from untutored. His education stemmed from the profound wisdom and traditions of his people. He did not learn from books but directly from experience, validating his knowledge through practical application. Though his initial appearance might not have been particularly striking, his words possessed a captivating power that drew listeners in. He was characterized by a resolute and unwavering nature, quick to understand situations and resistant to changing his mind. His inherent trust was gradually eroded by the circumstances he faced. The more unfavorable aspects of his personality were largely shaped by the events that unfolded throughout his life.
Numerous accounts of Sitting Bull’s life have been penned by journalists and military officers, but many of these narratives are riddled with inaccuracies. Charles A. Eastman met Sitting Bull personally in 1884 and, after his death, conducted extensive interviews with his relatives and contemporaries to gain a more complete and authentic understanding of his life. Contrary to some claims that he was physically cowardly and not a warrior, the incident that first brought him renown within his tribe, when he was around twenty-eight years old, speaks volumes about his courage.
During an attack on a band of Crow Indians, one enemy warrior, after the others had fled, took refuge in a deep ditch, making it seemingly impossible to dislodge him. The situation had already claimed the lives of several Sioux warriors, but they were determined not to allow him to escape and boast of his defiance.
Sitting Bull rallied the warriors, crying out, "Follow me!" He charged toward the ditch, striking the enemy with his coup-staff, forcing him to expose himself to the fire of the other Sioux warriors. However, the Crow warrior merely pointed his empty gun at Sitting Bull’s face and retreated back into cover. Seeing that no one had followed him and realizing that the enemy had no more ammunition, Sitting Bull rode deliberately to the barrier and tossed his loaded gun over to the Crow warrior. He then returned to his party and berated them for their lack of courage.
"Now," he declared, "I have armed him, for I will not see a brave man killed unarmed. I will strike him again with my coup-staff to count the first feather; who will count the second?"
Once more, he led the charge, and this time, the other warriors followed. Sitting Bull was severely wounded by his own gun in the hands of the enemy, who was ultimately killed by those who came after him. This act of bravery and selflessness is unparalleled in the annals of Native American warrior history.
Another noteworthy incident involved his capture of a young boy during a battle with the Assiniboine tribe. Sitting Bull spared the boy’s life and adopted him as his brother. This boy, named Hohay, became devoted to Sitting Bull and played a significant role in spreading his fame in later years. Sitting Bull possessed innate diplomatic skills and was a gifted orator. In his middle age, he transitioned from the warpath to become a counselor and leader of his people. From that point forward, Hohay represented him in all major battles, exclaiming after every act of bravery, "I, Sitting Bull’s boy, do this in his name!"
Sitting Bull also had a nephew, One Bull, who bore a striking resemblance to him and also represented him on the battlefield. The remaining members of his immediate band still regarded One Bull as their chief.
In Sitting Bull’s youth, there was little reason to anticipate conflict with the white population. He knew many of the early traders, such as Picotte, Choteau, Primeau, and Larpenteur, and, like most of his people, held them in high regard. Historical records from that era consistently depict the Sioux as having a friendly disposition toward the traders. The major fur companies relied on their trade for over a century and a half. It was not until the mid-19th century that the Sioux began to fully realize the grave threat posed to their very existence. By that time, many of the older chiefs had been corrupted by alcohol and other vices introduced by the white settlers. The areas surrounding forts and trading posts in Sioux City, Saint Paul, and Cheyenne were plagued by widespread demoralization.
The drunkards and hangers-on were willing to trade almost anything they possessed for the favors of the traders. However, the more principled and resilient members of the tribe remained aloof. They desired nothing from the white man except his hatchet, gun, and knife. They steadfastly refused to cede their lands and were willing to coexist peacefully as long as their way of life and customs were not disrupted. Unfortunately, this coexistence was not destined to last.
It is important to note that the Unkpapa band of Sioux, Sitting Bull’s own band, was not the first to take up arms against the white population. This was not due to a lack of contact, as they resided along the Missouri River, a major trade route. As early as 1854, the Ogallala and Brule tribes had clashed with soldiers near Fort Laramie. In 1857, Inkpaduta led a massacre of several settler families at Spirit Lake, Iowa.
In 1862, the Minnesota Sioux, driven to desperation by numerous injustices, revolted and murdered many settlers before fleeing to the Unkpapa territory and seeking their assistance. They urged all Native Americans to unite against the white invaders. This forced Sitting Bull to confront a question that was still developing in his own mind. After confirming the validity of their grievances, he joined forces with the renegades in the summer of 1863 and became an acknowledged leader.
In 1865 and 1866, he met Louis Riel, a Canadian Métis leader who instigated two rebellions and sought refuge in Sioux territory. Sitting Bull also harbored a number of outlaws and fugitives from justice. His interactions with these individuals, particularly the French Métis, who fueled his animosity toward the Americans, played a significant role in transforming the shrewd Sioux leader into a staunch adversary of the white population. While he remained affable and approachable among his own people, he adopted a boastful and domineering demeanor in his dealings with the white race, whom he despised. He once remarked that "if we wish to make any impression upon the pale-face, it is necessary to put on his mask."
Sitting Bull participated in the attack on Fort Phil Kearny and subsequent hostilities. However, he genuinely accepted the Treaty of 1868 and, shortly after its signing, traveled to Washington with Red Cloud and Spotted Tail. The three distinguished chiefs garnered considerable attention and were hosted at a dinner by President Grant and other prominent figures. Sitting Bull believed that the white man’s way of life was unsuitable for his people. He hoped to preserve the Bighorn and Black Hills region as a permanent hunting ground by adhering to the terms of the treaty. However, when gold was discovered and prospectors rushed into the forbidden paradise, his faith in the white man’s honor shattered, and he adopted a steadfast defense of his nation and homeland. His deep-seated and well-founded aversion to the conquering race is evident in a speech he delivered before a purely Native American council on the Powder River.
"Behold, my friends, the spring is come; the earth has gladly received the embraces of the sun, and we shall soon see the results of their love! Every seed is awakened, and all animal life. It is through this mysterious power that we too have our being, and we therefore yield to our neighbors, even to our animal neighbors, the same right as ourselves to inhabit this vast land."
"Yet hear me, friends! we have now to deal with another people, small and feeble when our forefathers first met with them, but now great and overbearing. Strangely enough, they have a mind to till the soil, and the love of possessions is a disease in them. These people have made many rules that the rich may break, but the poor may not! They have a religion in which the poor worship, but the rich will not! They even take tithes of the poor and weak to support the rich and those who rule."
"They claim this mother of ours, the Earth, for their own use, and fence their neighbors away from her, and deface her with their buildings and their refuse. They compel her to produce out of season, and when sterile she is made to take medicine in order to produce again. All this is sacrilege."
"This nation is like a spring freshet; it overruns its banks and destroys all who are in its path. We cannot dwell side by side. Only seven years ago we made a treaty by which we were assured that the buffalo country should be left to us forever. Now they threaten to take that from us also. My brothers, shall we submit? or shall we say to them: ‘First kill me, before you can take possession of my fatherland!’"
Sitting Bull acted in accordance with his convictions, demonstrating the courage to stand by his words. While Crazy Horse led the forces in the field, Sitting Bull dedicated his efforts to state affairs, using his strong and forceful personality to unite the hostile tribes.
It can be stated definitively that Sitting Bull never killed any women or children. He was a fair fighter, and although he was not a prominent figure in battle after his youth, he served as the intellectual force behind the Sioux resistance. He has been described as a "medicine man" and a "dreamer," but these labels are inaccurate and reflect a misunderstanding of Native American culture. A medicine man is a doctor or healer, while a dreamer is an active war prophet who leads his war party based on his dreams or prophecies. The white man’s notion of "making medicine" in wartime is also a misinterpretation. Every warrior carries a bag of sacred or lucky charms believed to protect the wearer, but this has no bearing on the overall success or safety of the war party. No one can "make medicine" to influence the outcome of a battle, although it has been falsely claimed that Sitting Bull did so at the Battle of the Little Bighorn.
When Custer and Reno attacked the camp from opposite ends, Sitting Bull was caught off guard. The village was vulnerable to surprise, and the women and children needed to be protected. Like other men of his age, Sitting Bull gathered his family to flee and then joined the warriors on the Reno side of the attack. He was not involved in the famous charge against Custer. Nevertheless, his voice could be heard throughout the day, encouraging the warriors.
During the autumn of 1876, after the demise of Custer, Sitting Bull was relentlessly pursued by the military throughout the Yellowstone region. The following letter, likely written at his dictation by a Métis interpreter, was sent to Colonel Otis shortly after a daring attack on his wagon train.
"I want to know what you are doing, traveling on this road. You scare all the buffalo away. I want to hunt in this place. I want you to turn back from here. If you don’t, I will fight you again. I want you to leave what you have got here and turn back from here."
"I am your friend,"
"Sitting Bull."
"I mean all the rations you have got and some powder. Wish you would write me as soon as you can."
Otis, however, continued onward and joined Colonel Miles, who pursued Sitting Bull with approximately four hundred soldiers. Miles eventually caught up with him on Cedar Creek, near the Yellowstone, and the two leaders met midway between the lines for a parley.
According to the army report, "Sitting Bull wanted peace in his own way." In reality, he desired nothing more than what had been guaranteed to them by the Treaty of 1868 – the exclusive possession of their last hunting ground. However, the government was unwilling to grant this request, having decided to place all Native Americans under military control on various reservations.
Due to the irreconcilable differences between these demands, the hostile tribes were forced to move from place to place for several years before seeking refuge in Canada. Sitting Bull placed his final hope for justice and freedom for his people in this new land.
Over time, he was joined by groups of disgruntled individuals from the reservations, who were largely driven by starvation and mistreatment to seek a new home. However, United States commissioners, led by General Terry, followed them, attempting to persuade them to return with promises of abundant food and fair treatment, despite the exiles’ awareness of the dire conditions faced by the "good Indians" on the reservations. Sitting Bull initially refused to meet with them and only agreed to do so at the urging of Major Walsh of the Canadian Mounted Police. In a characteristic statement, he declared, "If you have one honest man in Washington, send him here and I will talk to him."
While Sitting Bull was unmoved by empty promises, he realized that while they had liberty in Canada, they lacked other essential resources. The Canadian government offered protection but no food, the buffalo had been nearly wiped out, and his people were beginning to desert him. Faced with these circumstances, he reluctantly reported to Fort Buford, North Dakota, in 1881, along with his band of hungry, homeless, and dispirited refugees. In the end, it was hunger, rather than military force, that compelled him to surrender.
Despite the invitation he had received in the name of the "Great Father" in Washington, he was immediately imprisoned and then handed over to Colonel Cody ("Buffalo Bill") to be used as an attraction in his "Wild West Show."
After spending several years traveling with the showman, Sitting Bull gained a deeper understanding of the weaknesses and strengths of the white population. Upon his return, he settled quietly with his people on the Standing Rock Agency in North Dakota. His immediate band occupied the Grand River district and focused on raising cattle and horses.
They achieved significant progress, far exceeding that of the "coffee-coolers" or "loafer" Indians. They welcomed missionaries and soon became regular churchgoers.
During the Commissions of 1888 and 1889, when the Sioux were asked to cede more land and reduce their reservations, almost all opposed any concessions. However, through questionable means, enough signatures were obtained to pass the measure, even though many signatures belonged to women and "squaw-men" who had no rights to the land. At the same time, rations were reduced, leading to widespread hardship and discontent. Crazy Horse had long since died, Spotted Tail had been killed by a member of his own tribe, and Red Cloud had become a frail old man. Disaffected members of the Sioux once again looked to Sitting Bull for leadership.
At this critical moment, a curious event occurred. A Métis Indian in Nevada proclaimed that the Messiah had appeared to him on a peak in the Rockies, dressed in rabbit skins, and carrying a message for the red race. The message stated that since his first coming had been in vain because the white people had doubted and reviled him, nailed him to the cross, and rejected his teachings, he had returned in pity to save the Indian. He declared that he would cause the earth to shake, destroying the cities of the whites and restoring the buffalo, ensuring that the land would belong to the red race forever. These events were to occur within two years, and in the meantime, they were to prepare for his arrival through specific ceremonies and dances.
This strange tale spread rapidly and was eagerly embraced by the suffering and discontented people. The teachings of Christian missionaries had prepared them to believe in a Messiah, and the prescribed ceremonial aligned more closely with their traditions than the conventional worship of the churches. Chiefs from various tribes sent delegations to the Indian prophet. Short Bull, Kicking Bear, and others traveled from the Sioux and immediately began performing the dances upon their return.
Initially, there was an attempt to keep the matter secret, but it soon became widely known and caused serious concern among Indian agents and others, who suspected a hostile conspiracy beneath the veneer of religious fervor. In reality, there was no intention of an uprising. The dancing was harmless, and their desperate hope in a savior who would overwhelm their oppressors and restore their golden age was deeply poignant.
When the Indians refused to abandon the "Ghost Dance" at the authorities’ command, suspicion and alarm centered on Sitting Bull, who had never been entirely compliant. The decision was made to order his arrest. At the special request of Major McLaughlin, the agent at Standing Rock, forty of his Indian police were dispatched to Sitting Bull’s home on the Grand River to apprehend him, followed by a contingent of United States troops as reinforcement in case of trouble.
These police officers were recruited from among the tribesmen at each agency and were consistently brave and loyal. They entered the cabin at daybreak, awakened the chief from his slumber, assisted him in dressing, and escorted him from the house without resistance. However, as he emerged into the gray dawn of that December morning in 1890, he found his cabin surrounded by armed men and realized he was being led away to an uncertain fate. He cried out loudly, "They have taken me: what say you to it?"
People poured out of the neighboring houses, and within minutes, the police were surrounded by an agitated and rapidly growing crowd. The police attempted to reason with the crowd, but Sitting Bull’s anger had been ignited, and he appealed to his men once more. His adopted brother, the Assiniboine captive whose life he had saved years earlier, fired the first shot, killing Lieutenant Bull Head, who was holding Sitting Bull by the arm. A brief but intense conflict ensued, resulting in the deaths of Sitting Bull and six of his defenders, as well as six of the Indian police, with many more wounded. The chief’s young son, Crow Foot, and his devoted "brother" also perished. Once the violence subsided and the terrified people had fled across the river, the soldiers appeared on the brow of the long hill and fired their Hotchkiss guns into the deserted camp.
Thus ended the life of a natural strategist with considerable courage and ability. The great chief was buried without honors outside the cemetery at the post, and for several years, his grave was marked by a simple wooden board. Recently, women have constructed a cairn of rocks there as a sign of respect and remembrance.
By Charles A. Eastman (Ohiyesa) in 1918, compiled and edited by Kathy Weiser/Legends of America, updated October 2021.
Editor’s Note:
Sitting Bull was killed on December 15, 1890, and his body was taken to Fort Yates, where he was buried. However, in 1953, Sitting Bull’s remains were moved to Mobridge, South Dakota, where he is honored with an appropriate monument. Overlooking the Missouri River near his home, he is remembered among the Lakota not only as an inspirational leader and fearless warrior but also as a loving father, a spiritual man, and a person who was always friendly to others.
Update: On October 27, 2021, a study published in Science Advances confirmed through DNA analysis that Ernie LaPointe is a living great-grandson of Sitting Bull. LaPointe requested the test to strengthen his argument for moving the Lakota leader’s remains from Mobridge, SD, to a location he believes holds greater cultural significance for his great-grandfather.
About the Author: Excerpted from the book Indian Heroes and Great Chieftains, by Charles A. Eastman, 1918. Note, the text is not verbatim as editing has occurred. Charles A. Eastman earned a medical degree from Boston University School of Medicine in 1890 and then began working for the Office of Indian Affairs later that year. He worked at the Pine Ridge Agency, South Dakota, and was an eyewitness to both events leading up to and following the Wounded Knee Massacre of December 29, 1890. Himself part-Sioux, he knew many of the people about whom he wrote.
Also See:
Battle of Little Big Horn
Native American People
Native American Tribes
Native Americans – First Owners of America