The Adena Culture of the Northeast
The Adena Culture, a pre-Columbian Native American civilization, flourished in the Northeastern United States from approximately 1000 B.C. to 1 A.D. This era marks a significant period in the region’s history, leaving behind a legacy of distinctive cultural practices, architectural marvels, and artistic expressions. Spanning across a vast territory that encompassed present-day Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin, West Virginia, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and New York, the Adena people were not a single, unified tribe but rather a collection of related indigenous groups. These communities shared common traits in their artifact styles, architectural designs, and cultural traditions, most notably their elaborate burial and ceremonial systems, which involved the construction of earthen mounds.
The Mound Builders: A Legacy of Earthworks
The Adena Culture holds the distinction of being among the earliest "mound builders" in North America, a practice that would persist for nearly two millennia through various subsequent cultures. These monumental earthworks, constructed without the aid of the wheel or domesticated animals, served multiple purposes for the Adena people. Building these mounds was a monumental task, requiring the movement of enormous quantities of earth, basket by basket, to the construction site. This arduous process likely contributed to the repeated use of the mounds over time. As years passed, more earth was added, and the mounds grew taller and more imposing, incorporating multiple burials at different levels.
These earthen structures varied considerably in size, ranging from 20 to 300 feet in diameter. Among the most notable examples is the Grave Creek Mound in Moundsville, West Virginia, a conical-shaped structure that stands as the largest Adena burial mound. Towering at 62 feet in height and 240 feet in diameter, this remarkable feat of engineering is believed to have taken over a century to complete.
Archaeological research suggests that these earthworks served not only as burial sites but also as ceremonial centers and territorial markers. Their construction and expansion were integral to the Adena’s burial rituals. Some individuals were cremated, while others were buried intact, reflecting the diversity of their funerary practices.
Near or atop the mounds, mortuary structures were erected to house the deceased until their final burial. Within these structures, the remains were placed alongside grave goods, including tools and other items deemed necessary for the afterlife. After a period of time, the structure would be burned, along with the goods and the honored dead within, becoming an integral part of the mound itself.
Individuals of high status, such as clan leaders, healers, and shamans, received special treatment in death. Their bodies were interred within the mound, accompanied by a rich array of artifacts, including bone or flint tools, beads, jewelry, pipes, mica, and copper ornaments. These elaborate burials were not limited to men; women and individuals of all ages were also honored in this manner.
In the later Adena period, circular ridges were sometimes constructed around the burial earthworks, which are believed to have served as ritual spaces. These enclosures added another layer of complexity to the Adena’s ceremonial practices.
The Name "Adena": A Tribute to a Governor’s Estate
The name "Adena" is derived from the estate of Ohio Governor Thomas Worthington, located approximately one and a half miles northwest of Chillicothe, Ohio. Worthington named his estate "Adena," after a prominent 26-foot tall ancient burial mound located on the property. The culture and the mound both adopted the name "Adena" in recognition of this historical connection.
Daily Life and Sustenance: A Blend of Hunting, Gathering, and Agriculture
The Adena people were skilled hunter-gatherers who also practiced agriculture. They cultivated various crops, including squash, sunflower, pumpkin, goosefoot, and tobacco. Their diet was supplemented by gathering native plants, seeds, grasses, nuts, and berries, as well as hunting game and fishing.
Adena society was organized around extended family groups, typically consisting of 15 to 20 individuals. Several extended families formed a lineage or clan, and four to six of these clans comprised an Adena social group.
Their dwellings were circular in shape, with conical roofs constructed from wood, bark, and wickerwork. These structures ranged in diameter from 15 to 45 feet, and a small number of these dwellings formed a village.
The Adena people were known to travel extensively for hunting, gathering, and trading purposes. Their wide-ranging trade network enabled them to acquire copper from the Great Lakes region and shells from the Gulf Coast, demonstrating their ability to connect with distant communities.
Artistic Expressions and Technological Innovations
The Adena people were the first in the region to produce clay pottery. Their pottery was characterized by large, thick-walled vessels used for cooking. They also created flat platforms for grinding seeds, showcasing their ingenuity in food preparation.
The Adena also developed a variety of tools, including hoes, axes, and projectiles made from stones, bones, and antlers. They skillfully utilized plant fibers and sinew to create twine, cord, and yarn, which they fashioned into bags, shoes, and clothing. In addition, they employed herbal medicines to treat various ailments, indicating their knowledge of the natural world.
Beads, combs, and ornamental objects were crafted from bone and antler, while spoons, beads, and other implements were made from conch shells. Although copper axes have been discovered, copper was primarily used for ornamental forms and jewelry, highlighting its value as a decorative material.
The Adena were renowned for their artistic talent. They created numerous pieces adorned with art motifs, such as the weeping eye, cross, and circle designs. These designs became staples for many later Native American tribes, demonstrating the Adena’s lasting influence on artistic traditions. Many of their designs revolved around the transformation of humans into animals, such as birds, wolves, bears, and deer, and then back to human form, reflecting their spiritual beliefs and connection to the natural world. Antlers, animal jawbones, copper, beads, and jewelry were used in costumes and other forms of regalia, adding to the visual richness of their ceremonies. They also carved small stone tablets with animal pictures and geometric designs, which may have been used to stamp designs on cloth, animal hides, or their own bodies.
The Transition to the Hopewell Culture
Around 500 B.C., the Adena culture gradually transitioned into a more sophisticated culture known as the Hopewell Culture. The Hopewell people, who were also mound builders, flourished between 1 A.D. and 700 A.D. They constructed larger earthworks and expanded their efforts to acquire exotic raw materials, such as mica and more copper. Other cultures continued the tradition of mound building until approximately 1300 A.D.
Preserving the Legacy: Adena Mound Sites Today
At one time, there were as many as 200 Adena mound sites. However, only a small number of them remain today. Some of these include the Criel and Grave Creek Mounds in West Virginia, and the Adena, Biggs, Enon, Miamisburg, and Wolf Plains Mounds in Ohio.
Tales of Giants: The Discovery of Tall Skeletons
Years later, when some of these burial mounds were excavated, a number of unusually tall skeletons were discovered. These findings sparked numerous tales of "Giants in America," adding to the mystique and intrigue surrounding the Adena Culture.
The Adena Culture stands as a testament to the rich history and cultural heritage of the Northeastern United States. Their legacy of mound building, artistic expression, and innovative practices continues to captivate and inspire us today.