The Army and Westward Expansion
By Richard W. Stewart
The westward expansion of the United States in the 19th century is a story etched in courage, ambition, and conflict. Integral to this narrative is the role of the United States Army, an institution tasked with exploring, surveying, and ultimately securing the vast territories acquired through purchase and conquest. This article examines the Army’s multifaceted involvement in the nation’s westward movement, beginning with the Louisiana Purchase and extending through decades of frontier life and conflict.
The saga unfolds shortly after Thomas Jefferson assumed the presidency. The unsettling news that France had acquired Louisiana from Spain sent ripples of concern through the young nation. Jefferson, along with many Americans, had anticipated that with Spain’s waning grip on its colonies, the United States would naturally inherit them. However, the prospect of a formidable power like France in control drastically altered the strategic landscape.
France’s presence in North America posed a novel security challenge. Previously, frontier defense primarily involved pacifying Native American tribes, preventing western territories from seceding, and curbing American settlers’ transgressions against Spanish interests. But with an assertive France as a neighbor, the frontier issue became intertwined with the larger question of national security against potential foreign aggression. Furthermore, the transfer of Louisiana to France signaled the imposition of restrictions on American trade along the Mississippi River. While Spain had previously allowed American settlers to transport goods down the river and deposit them at New Orleans, this right was revoked before the transfer, effectively stifling American commerce through this vital waterway.
These considerations prompted Jefferson in 1803 to explore the possibility of purchasing New Orleans from France. When Napoleon, foreseeing the resumption of war in Europe, offered to sell the entire Louisiana Territory for $15 million, Jefferson seized the opportunity, effectively doubling the size of the United States. Following the formal acquisition of Louisiana on December 20, 1803, the Army established small garrisons at New Orleans and other former Spanish outposts along the lower Mississippi River. Brigadier General James Wilkinson, a seasoned officer who had weathered the Army’s numerous reorganizations, was appointed as the territory’s first governor. The stage was set for the Army to play a pivotal role in the unfolding drama of westward expansion.
Six months prior to the Louisiana Purchase, President Jefferson had already convinced Congress of the need to explore the uncharted lands west of the Mississippi River. The acquisition of the Louisiana Territory only amplified the urgency and importance of such an endeavor. It was a logical decision for the new nation and its president to turn to the Army for this critical mission. Soldiers possessed the resilience, teamwork, discipline, and training necessary to endure the hardships they would inevitably encounter. Moreover, the Army, even in 1803, boasted a nationwide organization, providing the potential for essential operational and logistical support. It stood as perhaps the only truly national institution in America besides Congress. The Army and Westward Expansion were inextricably linked from this moment forward.
To lead this ambitious expedition, Jefferson selected Captain Meriwether Lewis, a 28-year-old infantry officer renowned for his leadership skills, wilderness expertise, and keen observational abilities. Lewis, in turn, sought and received permission from the President to appoint William Clark as his co-captain. Clark, a former infantry company commander, was a proven leader of men and an accomplished woodsman. Both men had served under General Anthony Wayne on the western frontier, gaining invaluable experience in navigating the challenges of the wilderness.
Of the 48 men who accompanied Lewis and Clark up the Missouri River to the Mandan villages in 1804, 34 were soldiers, while 12 were contracted boatmen. The remaining two individuals were York, Clark’s manservant, and George Drouillard, a contract interpreter. Of the 31 individuals who journeyed with Lewis and Clark to the Pacific coast in 1805 and back in 1806, 26 were soldiers. The other five included York, Drouillard, and the Charbonneau family (Toussaint, Sacagawea, and their newborn son, Jean Baptiste). The Army and Westward Expansion were embodied in the Corps of Discovery.
From the summer of 1803 to the fall of 1806, the expedition was unequivocally an Army operation, officially designated the "Corps of Volunteers for North Western Discovery." This group spearheaded the American crossing of the vast continent for the first time. Its scientific objectives yielded invaluable data on flora, fauna, hydrology, and geography. Its peaceful intentions fostered commerce with the Native American tribes encountered along the way. Overall, the expedition served as a powerful illustration of America’s potential for progress and constructive achievement.
While Lewis and Clark were venturing beyond the Missouri River, General James Wilkinson dispatched Captain Zebulon M. Pike on a similar expedition to the headwaters of the Mississippi River. In 1807, Wilkinson organized another expedition, sending twenty men under Captain Pike westward into what is now Colorado. After exploring the region surrounding the peak that now bears his name, Pike encountered Spanish forces who, wary of the intrusion, placed his party under armed guard and escorted them to Santa Fe, New Mexico. The Spanish subsequently transported the Americans into Mexico and back across Texas to Natchitoches, once again within American territory. Despite these setbacks, the Lewis and Clark Expedition and Captain Pike’s explorations significantly enhanced the country’s geographic and scientific knowledge and stand as epic tales of the West. The Army and Westward Expansion thus extended beyond the Louisiana Purchase.
The notion of marching across the continent might have seemed like the inevitable destiny of the republic, but it was met with understandable apprehension by the Spanish. The dispute over the boundary between Louisiana and Spain’s frontier provinces became a contentious issue during Jefferson’s second term. Tensions escalated in 1806 as reports reached Washington of the deployment of thousands of Spanish regulars to bolster the mounted Mexican militiamen in east Texas. Jefferson responded by mobilizing the militias of the Orleans and Mississippi Territories and dispatching approximately 1,000 regulars to General Wilkinson to counter the Spanish move. However, the rumors proved to be exaggerated; the Spanish never outnumbered the American forces in the region. A series of cavalry skirmishes ensued along the Sabine River, but the opposing commanders prudently avoided war by establishing a neutral zone between the Arroyo Hondo and the Sabine River. The two armies maintained positions along this line throughout 1806, and the neutral zone functioned as a de facto boundary until 1812.
The Army’s role in the Army and Westward Expansion was not limited to exploration and border disputes. As settlers moved westward, the Army was increasingly tasked with protecting them from Native American tribes who resisted the encroachment on their ancestral lands. This led to a series of conflicts, often characterized by brutality and injustice on both sides. The Army’s involvement in these conflicts is a complex and controversial aspect of westward expansion, one that continues to be debated and re-evaluated today.
The Army’s contributions to westward expansion extended beyond military campaigns. Soldiers played a vital role in constructing roads, forts, and other infrastructure that facilitated settlement and commerce. They also conducted surveys, mapped territories, and provided medical care to settlers. In many ways, the Army served as a civilizing force on the frontier, bringing order and stability to a lawless and unpredictable environment.
The Army and Westward Expansion were intertwined through the stories of countless soldiers, officers, and civilian employees. These individuals faced immense hardships, endured long periods of isolation, and often risked their lives in the service of their country. Their contributions, both large and small, helped to shape the American West and define the nation’s character.
In conclusion, the Army played a critical and multifaceted role in the westward expansion of the United States. From exploring uncharted territories to protecting settlers and building infrastructure, the Army was instrumental in shaping the American West. While its involvement in conflicts with Native American tribes remains a controversial aspect of this history, the Army’s contributions to the nation’s westward movement cannot be denied. The legacy of the Army in the West continues to resonate today, reminding us of the complex and often contradictory forces that shaped the American nation.