The Ghost Dance – A Promise of Fulfillment
The late 1880s marked a period of profound hardship for Native Americans confined to reservations. Facing cultural erosion, dwindling resources, and the oppressive weight of government policies, hope seemed a distant dream. It was within this environment of despair that the Ghost Dance, a spiritual movement promising renewal and restoration, emerged as a beacon of light. The Ghost Dance was more than just a ritual; it was a fervent expression of longing, a desperate plea for deliverance, and a powerful symbol of cultural resilience.
The genesis of this transformative movement can be traced back to a Paiute Indian named Wovoka, also known as Jack Wilson after adopting an English name. Wovoka, a charismatic figure, proclaimed himself to be a messiah sent to Earth to prepare Native Americans for their salvation. His message resonated deeply with tribes across the American West, offering solace and a vision of a world free from suffering and injustice.
The roots of the Ghost Dance extend further back, originating in the 1870s within the Western Great Basin. The visions of Wodziwob, also known as Gray Hair, foretold an earth renewal and the return of the spirits of ancient Numu, the Northern Paiute ancestors, to aid their descendants. At the heart of the Natdia religion, as it was sometimes called, lay the dance itself – a continuous circular dance designed to induce a state of profound religious ecstasy. This trance-like state was believed to facilitate communication with the spirit world, bringing dancers closer to the promised renewal.
Wovoka’s pivotal experience occurred during a solar eclipse on January 1, 1889. He claimed to have been transported to the spirit world, where he witnessed a vision of Native Americans ascending into the sky as the Earth opened to engulf the white settlers, reverting to its pristine, natural state. In this renewed world, Native Americans, reunited with their ancestors, would live in peace and harmony. Wovoka further asserted that continuous performance of the round dance would make this vision a reality, allowing participants to partake in the blessings of the new Earth.
His teachings, while unique, built upon existing Paiute traditions that predicted a renaissance for the tribe. Interestingly, Wovoka’s message also incorporated elements of Christian doctrine. He emphasized the importance of peace and urged his followers to conceal the true meaning of the dance from the white authorities. Despite this caution, Wovoka’s message rapidly spread among various Native American peoples, who eagerly embraced the movement. Representatives from tribes across the nation journeyed to Nevada to meet with Wovoka, learn the Ghost Dance, and acquire the accompanying songs.
Wovoka’s instructions for the dance were specific: "When you get home you must begin a dance and continue for five days. Dance for four successive nights, and on the last night continue dancing until the morning of the fifth day when all must bathe in the river and then return to their homes. You must all do this in the same way…I want you to dance every six weeks. Make a feast at the dance and have food that everybody may eat."
The core belief underpinning the Natdia was the imminent renewal of Native American society and the decline of white influence. This promise of a return to a pre-colonial existence, where traditional ways of life could flourish once more, proved immensely appealing to Native Americans who had endured years of displacement, cultural suppression, and broken treaties. The Ghost Dance offered a tangible hope for a better future, a future where their ancestral lands would be restored and their cultural identity reaffirmed.
As the movement gained momentum, agents of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) grew increasingly uneasy. The sight of large gatherings of Native Americans engaging in a new and unfamiliar practice aroused suspicion and fear. The BIA, tasked with controlling and assimilating Native American populations, viewed the Ghost Dance as a potential threat to their authority.
In early October 1890, Kicking Bear, a Minneconjou Sioux, visited Sitting Bull at Standing Rock, recounting his encounter with Wovoka. They described the multitude of Native Americans present and referred to Wovoka as the Christ. They also relayed the prophecy that the following spring, when the grass grew tall, a new layer of earth would cover the land, burying all the white men. This new earth would be abundant with sweetgrass, flowing water, and trees, and the great herds of buffalo and wild horses would return. All Native Americans who participated in the Ghost Dance would be lifted into the air while the new earth was being laid down, then returned to the land alongside the ghosts of their ancestors.
The spread of the Ghost Dance to the Lakota Sioux further heightened the alarm among BIA agents. They claimed that the Lakota had adopted a militaristic interpretation of the dance, creating "ghost shirts" that they believed would render them invulnerable to bullets. They also openly discussed the purpose of their dancing, fueling anxieties among white authorities. The BIA agent responsible for the Lakota ultimately ordered the tribal police to arrest Sitting Bull, a highly respected leader, to force him to halt the dance. The ensuing struggle resulted in Sitting Bull’s death, along with several policemen. A small cavalry detachment eventually rescued the remaining officers.
The killing of Sitting Bull prompted the United States to dispatch the Seventh Cavalry to "disarm the Lakota and take control." These events culminated in the Wounded Knee Massacre on December 29, 1890, a horrific tragedy in which 457 U.S. soldiers opened fire on unarmed Sioux, killing over 200 men, women, and children. The Ghost Dance movement reached its zenith shortly before this devastating event.
The Wounded Knee Massacre effectively shattered the hopes of many believers. The failure of the ghost shirts to provide protection from bullets and the non-fulfillment of the promised resurrection led many to abandon the Ghost Dance. Wovoka, disheartened by the death threats and disillusioned by the various reinterpretations of his vision, withdrew from public life. However, he remained a respected figure among his followers and continued his religious practices until his death in 1932. Despite the setbacks and tragedies, the Ghost Dance did not entirely disappear.
Even today, some individuals continue to practice the Ghost Dance, holding onto the belief that it will ultimately reunite them with their ancestors, who will arrive by railway from the spirit world. They invoke the spirits of their ancestors, including the spirit of Jesus, to heal the sick and protect Mother Earth. According to their beliefs, the world will eventually revert to a primordial state of natural beauty, engulfing those who lack a strong spiritual connection to the earth. The performers of the Ghost Dance will then ascend to safety with their ancestors, families, and all those who embrace this profound spirituality.
An account from Mrs. Z.A. Parker, who observed the Ghost Dance among the Lakota at Pine Ridge Reservation, Dakota Territory, on June 20, 1890, provides a vivid description of the ceremony:
"We drove to this spot at about 10:30 o’clock on a delightful October day. We came upon tents scattered here and there in low, sheltered places long before reaching the dance ground. Presently we saw over three hundred tents placed in a circle, with a large pine tree in the center, which was covered with strips of cloth of various colors, eagle feathers, stuffed birds, claws, and horns-all offerings to the Great Spirit…In the center, around the tree, were gathered their medicine-men; also those who had been so fortunate as to have had visions and in them had seen and talked with friends who had died…After marching around the circle of tents they turned to the center, where many had gathered and were seated on the ground."
Parker further described the distinctive garments worn by the participants: "I think they wore the ghost shirt or ghost dress for the first time that day…They were of white cotton cloth. The women’s dress was cut like their ordinary dress, a loose robe with wide, flowing sleeves, painted blue in the neck, in the shape of a three-cornered handkerchief, with moon, stars, birds, etc., interspersed with real feathers…The ghost shirt for the men was made of the same material-shirts and leggings painted in red…fantastically sprinkled with figures of birds, bows and arrows, sun, moon, and stars, and everything they saw in nature."
Her account continued, detailing the emotional intensity of the dance, the chanting, the wailing, and the trance-like states experienced by many participants. The observation provides invaluable insight into the spiritual significance and the profound emotional impact of the Ghost Dance on its practitioners.
The Ghost Dance, though ultimately unable to deliver on its promise of immediate restoration, remains a significant chapter in Native American history. It stands as a testament to the enduring spirit of Native American cultures, their unwavering hope in the face of adversity, and their determination to preserve their traditions and beliefs in a world that often sought to erase them.