The Mississippi River and Expansion of America

The Mississippi River, a liquid artery coursing through the heart of North America, stands as a monumental testament to the continent’s natural grandeur and a pivotal force in shaping the trajectory of the United States. Stretching over 2,300 miles, it reigns as the largest river system on the continent and ranks as the fourth-longest and tenth-most powerful river on Earth. From its humble beginnings at Lake Itasca in Minnesota, the river embarks on a slow, deliberate southward journey, eventually emptying into the Gulf of Mexico approximately 95 miles downstream from the vibrant city of New Orleans, Louisiana. The river’s influence extends far beyond its banks, as it and its primary tributary, the Missouri River, collectively drain all or portions of 31 U.S. states. This vast drainage basin spans from the towering peaks of the Rocky Mountains in the west to the rolling hills of the Appalachian Mountains in the east, reaching as far north as the Canadian border and encompassing the majority of the expansive Great Plains.

The Mississippi River’s impact on the development and expansion of America is unparalleled. Since the dawn of human awareness of this mighty waterway, it has served as a critical element in the nation’s physical and economic progress. It presented an obstacle to early explorers, prompting them to find innovative ways to traverse its formidable width. It ignited the imaginations of adventurers, enticing them to uncover its secrets and chart its course. And, perhaps most importantly, it became a symbol of opportunity in the minds of pragmatic individuals, representing the key to westward expansion and an economic treasure worth pursuing and safeguarding at any cost. Consequently, the river has been the subject of fierce battles and a valuable asset in diplomatic negotiations.

Emerging from the serene waters of Lake Itasca, nestled in the northern reaches of Minnesota, the Mississippi River embarks on a sinuous, 2,348-mile voyage southward, carving its way through the heartland of the United States. It meanders through the ancestral lands of the Chippewa people, gradually swelling in size as it passes by the twin cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, gathering strength from the numerous tributaries that feed into it. North of St. Louis, the river merges with the mighty Missouri River, further augmenting its flow. As it continues its southward trajectory, it receives the waters of the Ohio River near Cairo, Illinois, marking the transition to the Lower Mississippi, a colossal river unmatched in its scale within American waterways. From this point, the river flows south, caressing the shores of iconic river towns, each imbued with its own unique history and charm – Memphis, Greenville, Vicksburg, Natchez, Baton Rouge, and New Orleans. Nearly a thousand river miles south of Cairo, Illinois, the Mississippi River finally surrenders its powerful currents to the vast expanse of the Gulf of Mexico.

Before the arrival of European explorers and settlers, the fertile lands of the Mississippi Valley were inhabited by a diverse array of Native American tribes. Among these were the Cheyenne, Sioux, Ojibwe, Potawatomi, Ho-Chunk, Fox, Kickapoo, Tamaroa, Moingwena, Quapaw, and Chickasaw, each with their own distinct cultures, traditions, and ways of life intricately connected to the river and its surrounding environment.

While some historians speculate that Christopher Columbus may have been the first European to glimpse the mouth of the Mississippi River, this remains a topic of debate. A map from 1507, housed in the Royal Library in Madrid, Spain, depicts the river’s mouth and refers to it as "The River of Palms," but definitive evidence linking this river to the Mississippi River is lacking.

The documented history of European interaction with the Mississippi River begins in May 1541, when Hernando De Soto became the first European to set eyes upon the river near present-day Memphis, Tennessee. He christened it the Río del Espíritu Santo, meaning "River of the Holy Spirit." Following De Soto’s death in 1542, his expedition continued its explorations. The expedition’s historian, Garciliaso de la Vega, vividly described the Mississippi as a river prone to severe and prolonged flooding, with floodwaters extending as far as 20 leagues on either side of the river.

More than a century later, in 1673, Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet embarked on an expedition to explore the river, venturing from its upper reaches down to a point near present-day Arkansas City, Arkansas. Marquette, accompanied by a Sioux Indian named Ne Tongo, proposed naming the river the River of the Immaculate Conception.

In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, and Henri de Tonti navigated a significant portion of the river’s length to its mouth, claiming the entire Mississippi River Valley for France and naming it the Colbert River in honor of Jean-Baptiste Colbert.

In March 1699, Pierre Le Moyne d’Iberville rediscovered the mouth of the Mississippi River following La Salle’s death. Near Old River, Louisiana, he received a letter from an Indian chief who had previously been left there by La Salle. Shortly thereafter, the French constructed the small fort of La Balise to control access to the river.

Within a few years, French traders established settlements along the Mississippi River and ventured into the territory of the Natchez Indians. In 1705, the first cargo was transported down the river from the Indian country around the Wabash River in present-day Indiana and Ohio. This shipment consisted of 15,000 bear and deer hides, which were floated downstream through Bayou Manchac (just below Baton Rouge) and the Amite River, then through Lake Maurepas and Lake Pontchartrain to Biloxi, with France as the final destination. This route is no longer accessible, as Bayou Manchac was closed off during the construction of the Mississippi River levee system.

Fort Rosalie, the first permanent European settlement on the Mississippi River, was established by the French in 1716 and is now known as Natchez. In 1718, Bienville founded New Orleans, which became the capital of the region known as Louisiana four years later. New Orleans’ rapid growth was primarily due to its strategic location near the mouth of the river. Navigation flourished alongside the settlement of the Lower Mississippi Valley.

After Great Britain’s victory in the Seven Years’ War, the Mississippi River became the boundary between the British and Spanish Empires. The Treaty of Paris in 1763, signed by Great Britain, France, and Spain, granted Great Britain rights to all land east of the Mississippi and Spain rights to land west of the river. The treaty also stipulated that "the navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States."

Decades later, in 1800, France reacquired "Louisiana" from Spain through the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. In 1803, the United States purchased the territory from France in the Louisiana Purchase. In 1815, the U.S. defeated Britain at the Battle of New Orleans during the War of 1812, solidifying American control over the river.

The Native Americans’ canoes were soon deemed inadequate for the settlers’ growing needs. Flatboats and rafts, which followed, were one-way vessels. Loaded at an upstream location, they floated downriver, unloaded their cargo, were dismantled, and sold for lumber. Designed for a single voyage, they were inexpensive and often poorly built but could transport large quantities of goods at a time when transportation was critical to the expanding valley.

The keelboat emerged as the first dominant vessel in the river trade. Designed for two-way travel, it was long and narrow with elegant lines, built to withstand numerous journeys. A keelboat could carry up to 80 tons of cargo. After floating downriver, it was "Cordelled" back upstream. This required a crew of strong and resilient men, as cordelling involved the crew towing the keelboat along the bank against the current.

The invention of the steamboat in the early 19th century revolutionized river commerce. The first steamboat to navigate the Mississippi was the New Orleans. Constructed in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1811 at a cost of $40,000, it was a side-wheeler measuring 116 feet in length and weighing 371 tons.

On its maiden voyage, the New Orleans was caught in a series of tremors known as the "New Madrid Earthquake," likely the most severe non-volcanic earthquake in American history. Despite this, it continued downriver on a perilous journey to become the first steamboat to travel the Mississippi River, arriving in New Orleans on January 12, 1812. It was then put into service between New Orleans and Natchez. Two years later, it struck a submerged tree and sank.

In December 1814, Captain Henry M. Shreve transported a cargo of supplies for General Andrew Jackson’s army from Pittsburgh to New Orleans aboard his side-wheeler, the Enterprise. He capped off his journey by navigating past British batteries below New Orleans to deliver military supplies to Fort St. Philip.

Although steamboats were operating between New Orleans and Natchez, they had not yet ventured far upriver. Shreve addressed this challenge with his steamboat, the George Washington, built in 1816 in Wheeling, West Virginia. It featured a flat, shallow hull and a high-pressure engine. In 1817, the George Washington completed the round trip from Louisville, Kentucky, to New Orleans and back in 41 days.

This marked the beginning of the golden age of the paddle-wheeler. In 1814, only 21 steamboats arrived in New Orleans; by 1819, there were 191; and in 1833, over 1,200 steamboat cargoes were unloaded.

Some steamboats operated on the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, primarily between New Orleans and Louisville, Kentucky. In 1817, there were 14; in 1819, 31. However, the appearance of the steamboat on the Mississippi River above the mouth of the Ohio River was delayed for several years: In August 1817, the Zebulon M. Pike traveled up the river to St. Louis, Missouri. Three years later, the Western Engineer journeyed from St. Louis up the Missouri River and partially up the Mississippi above St. Louis. In April 1823, the Virginia departed St. Louis for various posts along the Mississippi. Twenty days and 683 miles later, the Virginia docked at Fort Snelling, Minnesota, at the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers, becoming the first steamboat to complete this trip.

By 1830, the steamboat era had arrived on the upper Mississippi, and by 1840, there was significant river commerce between St. Louis and the head of navigation at St. Anthony’s Falls, near present-day St. Paul, Minnesota.

The steamboat could transport freight and offered comfortable accommodations for passengers. More importantly, it could travel upstream nearly as easily as it traveled downstream. In the period leading up to the Civil War, its decks carried cotton and other agricultural products to market; it brought back essential goods and luxury items available only from outside the region, transported visitors from distant lands, and provided transportation to other parts of the country.

Although steamboat travel was risky and inconsistent in the early years, it offered faster, more reliable, and more convenient transportation than other methods. Nevertheless, it left room for improvement during its initial development phase.

Before the invention of the steamboat, a journey from Louisville to New Orleans often took four months. In 1820, the same trip could be made by steamboat in 20 days. By 1838, the journey took only 6 days.

These boats were substantial in size by Mississippi River standards. The Lee was 300 feet long and weighed 1,467 tons, while the Natchez was 301.5 feet long and weighed 1,547 tons. Both were longer than the Sprague, the largest paddle-wheel towboat ever constructed, and one had a greater tonnage.

The packet boat ushered in a dramatic increase in traffic. In 1834, there were 230 packets; by 1849, there were approximately 1,000, totaling around 250,000 tons. The packet remained the primary mode of transportation in the Mississippi River Valley until the latter part of the nineteenth century, when commerce began to shift to the expanding railroads.

In 1820, Congress began to address the navigational needs of the nation’s interior by authorizing a reconnaissance of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers. Fieldwork, which began in 1821, extended from Louisville, Kentucky, to the mouth of the Ohio River and from St. Louis, Missouri, to New Orleans on the Mississippi River. That same year, two Engineer officers, Brigadier General Simon Barnard and Major Joseph G. Totten, were dispatched to thoroughly investigate the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers. Their report, submitted the following year, contained observations on the physical characteristics of the rivers and focused significantly on the formation and removal of snags. Legislation was enacted in 1824, mandating the removal of these snags and other obstructions from the rivers’ channels.

Congress first improved the mouth of the Mississippi River for seagoing navigation in 1837, with an appropriation for an accurate survey of the passes and bars at the river’s mouth. Captain A. Talcott, Corps of Engineers, conducted this survey and completed it in 1838. He proposed a plan for deepening the bars by dredging, but insufficient funds hindered significant progress on this channel.

By 1850, the burgeoning river commerce and increasing destruction caused by floods led to a demand for Federal involvement in navigation improvements and flood protection.

In 1850, the Secretary of War, adhering to an Act of Congress, directed Charles Ellet Jr., an engineer, to conduct surveys and reports on the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers to develop suitable plans for flood prevention and navigation improvement. His report was comprehensive and greatly influenced subsequent improvements.

That same year, Congress allocated $50,000 to prepare a topographic and hydrographic survey of the Mississippi River delta and investigate the most viable plans for flood control and navigation improvements at the mouth of the river. However, it was not until 1861 that Captain A. A. Humphreys and Henry L. Abbott of the Corps of Engineers completed their field investigations and submitted their report. While their findings primarily addressed flood control, they also considered the navigation problem.

Meanwhile, maintaining the river’s mouth open to oceangoing traffic was a growing national concern, and Congress appropriated $75,000 in 1852 to improve the channel at the mouth of the river.

Control of the Mississippi River was a strategic goal for both sides during the Civil War, and numerous battles were fought on and near the waterway. In 1862, Union forces moving down the river successfully cleared Confederate defenses at Island Number 10 in present-day New Madrid, Missouri, and in Memphis, Tennessee. Simultaneously, Naval forces advancing upriver from the Gulf of Mexico captured New Orleans, Louisiana. The last Confederate stronghold on the mighty river was on the bluffs overlooking the river at Vicksburg, Mississippi. It also fell during the Union’s Vicksburg Campaign from December 1862 to July 1863, granting complete control of the lower Mississippi River to the Union. The Union victory ending the Siege of Vicksburg on July 4, 1863, was crucial to the Union’s eventual victory in the Civil War.

Dredging operations at the mouth of the Mississippi River resumed in 1867, but the persistent challenge of keeping the river’s mouth open to oceangoing traffic remained unresolved. By 1873, no significant progress had been made when Captain James B. Eads, a renowned construction engineer, advocated for a system of parallel jetties. He offered to open the mouth of the river by creating a jetty-guaranteed channel 28 feet deep between Southwest Pass and the Gulf at his own risk. If successful, he would receive a fee of $10,000,000.

After extensive debate, Eads was instructed to begin his work in the South rather than Southwest Pass in 1875. He encountered a difficult task complicated by yellow fever and unfavorable financial arrangements; however, he persevered and completed the project. On July 8, 1879, a 30-foot channel was officially declared to exist at the mouth of the Mississippi.

By this point, the importance of the Mississippi River to the Nation had become firmly established. Congress had demonstrated an increasing interest in flood control and navigation issues on the Mississippi, and legislation aimed at improving this mighty waterway for the benefit of the Nation was rapidly taking shape. In 1874, Congress authorized certain surveys of transportation routes to the seaboard. Five years later, the Board of Engineer officers concluded that a comprehensive levee system would only enhance commerce during periods of high water.

That same year, in June 1879, the Mississippi River Commission was established by an Act of Congress as an executive body reporting to the Secretary of War. The Commission consisted of seven members nominated by the President of the United States and confirmed by the Senate.

Since the enactment of the Flood Control Act of May 15, 1928, the Commission has served as an advisory and consulting body, rather than an executive body, responsible to the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army. The Commission’s general duties include recommending policy and work programs, studying and reporting on the need for modifications or additions to the flood control and navigation project, recommending on any matters authorized by law, conducting inspection trips, and holding public hearings.

The Commission’s work is directed by its President, who acts as its executive officer, and carried out by U.S. Army Engineer Districts at St. Louis, Memphis, Vicksburg, and New Orleans.

During World War II, Mississippi River transportation played an even more crucial role than ever before. The primary commerce on the lower Mississippi River involved the upstream movement of gasoline, oil, sulfur, and other products and materials vital to the war effort. Additionally, nearly 4,000 Army and Navy craft and other vessels for use in the war traveled from inland shipyards down the Mississippi to the sea.

Without a doubt, the Nation’s principal river, the Mississippi, is the main stem of a network of inland navigable waterways maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. This vast waterways system, encompassing approximately 12,350 miles, includes the Ohio, Missouri, Illinois, Arkansas, and Tennessee Rivers, among others. It extends into the agricultural Midwest and the industrial East, making Memphis, Vicksburg, and New Orleans close neighbors of Pittsburgh, Kansas City, and Chicago.

The Mississippi River remains a powerful form of transportation today, as large towboats haul barges loaded with steel, ores, grain, sand and gravel, petroleum products, chemicals, and more.

Today, the history of the Mighty Mississippi is commemorated at National and State parks, museums, interpretive centers, and numerous events. The Great River Road National Scenic Byway runs through ten scenic states – Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana.

This historic byway of the Mississippi River is one of North America’s oldest, longest, and most unique scenic byways. It offers nearly 3,000 miles of the Mississippi River Valley’s rich history, cultural diversity, charming river towns, lush forests, magnificent bluffs, and more. The Great River Road follows the Mississippi River from its humble headwaters in Minnesota’s north woods to the Gulf of Mexico.

The Great River Road dates back to 1938, when the governors of the ten river states conceived the idea of a transcontinental Great River Parkway along the Mississippi River. To conserve valuable resources, it was decided that instead of constructing a new continuous road, the existing network of rural roads and fledgling highways that meandered and crisscrossed the river would become the Great River Road. The green Pilot’s Wheel road sign, which marked the route of the new byway decades ago, still signifies the byway today.

Along the way, there are eight National Park Service sites, including the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area in Mississippi, dedicated to protecting and interpreting the river itself. Numerous state, county, and city parks and museums also commemorate the great river’s history.