Three Indian Campaigns
The annals of the American West are etched with stories of conflict, courage, and the relentless push of westward expansion. Among these narratives, certain campaigns against Native American tribes stand out as particularly memorable, showcasing the complexities and brutalities of warfare in the vast, untamed territories. This article, based on observations from General Wesley Merritt in 1890, will delve into three such campaigns that occurred in consecutive years, commencing with the centennial year of 1876, offering a glimpse into the challenges faced by both the U.S. Army and the Native American warriors defending their way of life. These are Three Indian Campaigns
The Nature of Indian Warfare
General Merritt, a seasoned military leader, highlighted the unique challenges inherent in waging war against Native American tribes. Unlike conventional warfare, the primary difficulty lay not in engaging the enemy in battle, but in locating them across the expansive and often unforgiving landscapes. The theater of operations for any Indian campaign, be it in Wyoming, Dakota, the Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), Texas, or Arizona, could easily encompass an area equivalent to the New England states combined with New York.
These territories were largely uninhabited wildernesses, devoid of roads and often rendered impenetrable by arid deserts and imposing mountain ranges. While every inch of this land was intimately familiar to the Native Americans, it remained an unknown and often hostile environment to even the most knowledgeable white man. The nomadic lifestyle of the tribes further complicated matters, as they possessed no fixed abodes and could readily adapt their movements to evade detection. Their sustenance and clothing were always with them, allowing them to disappear into the trackless wilds with ease. Considering these factors, one can begin to appreciate the immense difficulty in conducting successful warfare against the Indian.
When conflict erupted, even partially civilized Native Americans often reverted to what was perceived as their most savage state. While debates raged among humanitarians and advocates for fair treatment regarding the "Indian question," the realities on the ground were far more complex. It was naive to assume that Native Americans harbored deep-seated animosities rooted in historical grievances dating back to the arrival of the Pilgrims. Their understanding of history rarely extended beyond a single generation, and their motivations for engaging in warfare were often driven by immediate concerns and the desire to protect their lands and resources. The annuities they received were often viewed as tributes extracted through fear or coercion, and acts of kindness were interpreted as signs of weakness.
Fortunately for the U.S. Army, Native American tribes rarely launched direct attacks on frontier forts, which were often vulnerable. While capturing a fort would undoubtedly result in significant casualties, the reluctance to suffer heavy losses was a characteristic trait of the Native American warrior. They exhibited bravery when superstitious beliefs favored their chances of success, but they were less inclined to take risks that a civilized warrior might readily accept.
Custer’s Last Stand (1876)
The year 1876 brought forth one of the most infamous events in American military history: the Battle of the Little Bighorn. The news of the annihilation of Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer and his entire command sent shockwaves across the nation. Fifteen officers and 232 enlisted men were wiped out, leaving no survivors to recount the details of their demise. The story of Custer’s Last Stand is a well-known tragedy, a stark reminder of the perils of underestimating one’s adversary and the devastating consequences of military miscalculation. This defeat, while undeniably tragic, only served to enhance the perceived prowess of the Native American warrior and cast a long shadow over the lives of those left to mourn the fallen. Three Indian Campaigns includes this battle.
Chief Joseph’s Retreat (1877)
In the following year, 1877, another remarkable chapter in the history of the Indian Wars unfolded: the epic retreat and defense led by Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce tribe. Pursued by General Oliver Otis Howard and his command, the Nez Perce embarked on a grueling 1,300-mile journey from Idaho Territory to Montana. Along the way, they faced relentless harassment from intercepting forces, who sought to cut them off and force their surrender.
Chief Joseph’s leadership during this retreat was nothing short of extraordinary. He masterfully employed feints, stratagems, and ambushes to outwit his pursuers, demonstrating remarkable courage and endurance in the face of immense hardship. He led his people, including women and children, across treacherous terrain, navigated raging rivers, and evaded or battled numerous intercepting forces. His ultimate goal was to reach a safe haven, a land where he could find peace and security for his people. However, deceived about the true nature of the land he sought and the reception he would receive, Chief Joseph was eventually brought to bay, surrendering to an intercepting force with a heavy heart, his dreams of freedom shattered. The account of his journey, if penned by his own hand, would undoubtedly be a captivating tale of resilience, tactical brilliance, and the unwavering determination of a leader fighting for his people’s survival. Three Indian Campaigns is not completed without Chief Joseph’s Retreat.
The Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878)
While General Howard pursued the Nez Perce, another significant campaign was underway in the departments of the Platte and Dakota, targeting the Northern Cheyenne. This campaign culminated in the capture of nearly a thousand Cheyenne, who were subsequently sent under guard to a reservation in the Indian Territory. This forced relocation sparked widespread discontent among the Cheyenne, who longed for their ancestral lands and traditional way of life.
Despite initial orders to disarm the Cheyenne, these orders were rescinded when it was determined that they violated the terms of surrender. While many Cheyenne eventually adapted to their new surroundings and found solace among the Southern Cheyenne, a determined group, comprising approximately one-third of the tribe and led by Chiefs Dull Knife and Little Wolf, resolved to escape.
In the darkness of an early September night, around 90 men, 100 women, and over 100 children quietly abandoned their lodges and embarked on a perilous journey of nearly a thousand miles. Their destination was their homeland in the north, a journey fraught with danger and hardship. They were pursued relentlessly by a force of cavalry nearly equal in size to their own band of warriors.
Without tents or shelter, save for what they could carry on their horses, and facing marked fluctuations in temperature, this desperate band set out on their almost hopeless retreat. They traversed a country sparsely inhabited by whites, with railroads and telegraph lines at the disposal of their pursuers. Burdened by a large contingent of women and children, they pressed onward, driven by an unwavering determination to reclaim their freedom. Three Indian Campaigns involved the Northern Cheyenne Exodus.
The U.S. Army responded swiftly, deploying troops from various forts and establishing a series of intercepting lines along the Arkansas River and the Union Pacific Railroad. The pursuit was relentless, but the Cheyenne proved to be resourceful and elusive. They gathered and slaughtered cattle for sustenance, skirmished with pursuing forces, and skillfully evaded capture.
Despite the army’s best efforts, the Cheyenne managed to slip through the second line of troops stationed along the Kansas Pacific Railway. They continued their flight northward, murdering and pillaging settlements along the Beaver, Solomon, and Republican Rivers, replenishing their supplies and horses along the way.
The pursuit continued, with Captain Mauck of the Fourth Cavalry leading a determined force in pursuit of the fleeing Cheyenne. Despite marching an average of 40 miles a day for five consecutive days, Captain Mauck’s command was ultimately forced to abandon the chase due to exhaustion and the Cheyenne’s ability to acquire fresh horses.
Ultimately, the refugee band of Cheyenne was either annihilated or captured, and the remnants were forced to return to the reservation they had so desperately sought to escape. Their struggle serves as a testament to the indomitable spirit of a people who refused to surrender their freedom and way of life, even in the face of overwhelming odds.
Sheridan’s Assessment
General Philip Sheridan, in his report for the year, lamented the insufficient number of troops allocated to subdue the Native American tribes and occupy their lands. He argued that a force of 60,000 to 70,000 men would have been necessary to effectively control the vast territories and prevent the bloodshed that characterized these conflicts. The limited number of troops available, coupled with the challenges of fighting a mobile and adaptable enemy, resulted in engagements that were often desperate and resulted in heavy casualties on both sides. Three Indian Campaigns shows us the reality of Indian campaigns.
Conclusion
The three Indian campaigns of 1876, 1877, and 1878 represent a pivotal period in the history of the American West. They highlight the complexities of warfare against Native American tribes, the challenges faced by the U.S. Army, and the resilience and determination of the Native American warriors who fought to defend their lands and way of life. These campaigns, marked by tragedy, courage, and strategic brilliance, continue to resonate in the annals of American history, serving as a reminder of the human cost of westward expansion and the enduring legacy of the Indian Wars.