Colonial Indian Wars
The narrative of early America is interwoven with the complex and often fraught relationship between European settlers and the indigenous peoples who already inhabited the land. From the initial establishment of Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607, the seeds of conflict were sown, leading to a series of wars that punctuated the 17th and 18th centuries. These clashes, often referred to as the Colonial Indian Wars, stemmed from a confluence of factors, including the settlers’ insatiable demand for land and resources, profound cultural differences, and the inherent need for both groups to protect themselves and their way of life.
The first major conflict erupted a mere two years after the colonists landed at Jamestown, pitting the Powhatan Confederacy against the burgeoning settlement. This initial confrontation would be followed by a cascade of others, each with its own distinct causes and consequences. The Pequot War, King Philip’s War, and King William’s War stand as prominent examples, but these represent only a fraction of the numerous skirmishes, raids, and full-scale wars that scarred the colonial landscape. The Colonial Indian Wars are a testament to the clash of civilizations and the struggle for dominance in a new world.
The Powhatan Wars: A Clash of Needs and Understandings
When the English established their first permanent settlement at Jamestown in 1607, they found themselves within the territory of the Powhatan Confederacy, a powerful alliance of Algonquian-speaking tribes. Initial interactions were a mix of cautious cooperation and simmering tension. While there was no immediate outbreak of violence, the settlers, wary of potential threats, constructed a fort as a preemptive measure.
The early days of Jamestown were marked by hardship and vulnerability. In June of that year, Captain Newport, a key leader, departed for England to secure much-needed supplies. The remaining colonists, ill-prepared for the challenges ahead, soon began to succumb to disease, likely caused by contaminated water. Food shortages became rampant, and the specter of starvation loomed large. During that first harrowing winter, Captain John Smith, while engaged in exploration, was captured and brought before Wahunsunacock, the paramount chief of the Powhatan.
Historical accounts suggest that Smith and Wahunsunacock, also known as Chief Powhatan, engaged in a dialogue that led to a fragile understanding. Smith was released in the spring of 1608, and the Powhatan, recognizing the settlers’ dire situation, began to provide them with gifts of food. This assistance proved crucial to the survival of Jamestown; without it, the colony may well have perished from disease and starvation. The Colonial Indian Wars did not start out this way, but slowly began to take shape.
However, the nascent peace was soon threatened by the settlers’ escalating demands. Emboldened by their initial success, they began to view trade as a means of acquiring food, offering tools and the promise of Christianity in exchange. They failed to grasp the delicate balance of the Powhatan’s own subsistence, overlooking the fact that the indigenous people barely produced enough food to sustain themselves, let alone support an additional community.
By late 1609, a severe drought exacerbated the situation, placing even greater pressure on the Powhatan to provide for the English. Chief Powhatan, weary of the colonists’ incessant requests, issued a decree forbidding his people from offering further assistance. This marked a turning point in the relationship, leading to a rapid deterioration and ultimately igniting the Powhatan Wars, a series of conflicts that would persist intermittently until 1646. These wars, a tragic chapter in the story of the Colonial Indian Wars, underscore the destructive consequences of misunderstanding and unchecked ambition.
Escalating Tensions in New England
The period between 1660 and 1675 was a time of significant readjustment for the New England colonies. Widespread unease and uncertainty permeated the region, fueled by impending changes in their political status. From Maine to the frontiers of New York and the towns of Long Island, the colonies felt the strain of an evolving power dynamic.
Adding to the anxieties of the early colonists was the ever-present threat of Indian attacks. The vast stretches of unoccupied land that separated the settlements served as hunting grounds for various tribes, including the Narragansett of eastern Connecticut and western Rhode Island, the Pequot of Connecticut, the Wampanoag of Plymouth and its surrounding areas, the Pennacook of New Hampshire, and the Abenaki tribes of Maine.
Initially, the coastal tribes had been weakened by plague and starvation, posing little threat to the first colonists. However, as the newcomers ventured further inland, establishing new plantations, clearing forests, and cultivating the soil, they inevitably encroached upon Indian hunting grounds. Trappers and traders, armed with firearms and liquor, further destabilized the region, intensifying the Indian menace.
In response to the escalating threat, the colonies implemented measures to arm and train their citizens in militia companies. However, the New England fighting force suffered from significant deficiencies in equipment, discipline, and morale. The troops lacked uniforms, and the supply system was woefully inadequate. Alarms, whether signaled by beacons, drumbeats, or gunfire, were often slow and unreliable. Weapons were crude and cumbersome, with the pike eventually giving way to the flintlock, a heavy and unwieldy instrument of war. Carbines and pistols were also used, and cavalry or mounted infantry, though expensive to maintain, were introduced whenever possible.
By 1675, Plymouth boasted 14 companies of infantry and cavalry, while Massachusetts had six regiments, including the Ancient and Honorable Artillery. Maine and New Hampshire each had one regiment. Connecticut had four train bands in 1662 and nine in 1668, along with a troop of dragoneers and horses, but no formal regiments until the following century. Coastal defenses included forts, often inadequately supplied with ordnance, with the fort on Castle Island in Boston Harbor being the most prominent. Frontier settlements relied on garrison houses and stockades for protection. These are some of the many contributing factors that played into the Colonial Indian Wars.
While Massachusetts had twice prepared to resist coercion from England, and Connecticut and New Haven had faced potential threats from the Dutch, particularly after the recapture of New Amsterdam in 1673, the primary danger to New England remained the Indians. Both the French and the Dutch were suspected of inciting Indian warfare, the former along the southwestern border and the latter at various points in the north, particularly in New Hampshire and Maine. However, aside from occasional Indian raids, house burnings, and scalpings in the more remote areas, there were only two major wars in the 17th century: the Pequot War in 1637 and King Philip’s War in 1675-1676.
The Pequot War: A Brutal Overthrow
The Pequot War, primarily waged by Connecticut with assistance from a small contingent from Massachusetts and their Mohegan allies, resulted in the complete annihilation of the Pequot nation and the extermination of nearly its entire fighting force. The war began in June 1637 with Captain John Mason’s successful attack on the Pequot fort near Groton and concluded with the Battle of Fairfield Swamp on July 13th, where the surviving Pequot made their last stand.
Sassacus, the Pequot chieftain, was murdered by the Mohawk, among whom he had sought refuge. In the following year, any remaining Pequot found were killed by their enemies, the Mohegan and Narragansett. An entire Indian people were effectively wiped out of existence, an act that is difficult to justify on any grounds other than the perceived necessity of either slaying or being slain. The relentless pursuit of the scattered and demoralized remnants of these tribes remains a deeply troubling aspect of this conflict. The Colonial Indian Wars were especially hard on the Pequot.
The defeat of the Pequot opened the region from Saybrook to Mystic to settlement. It led to a treaty in 1638 with the Mohegan and Narragansett, intended to ensure harmony and peace. However, this treaty proved to be unsustainable, leading to a five-year struggle between the Mohegan chieftain, Uncas, allied with Connecticut, and Miantonomo, sachem of the Narragansett. This conflict embroiled Connecticut in a tortuous and often dishonorable policy of attempting to divide the Indians in order to rule them, a strategy that resulted in numerous embarrassing negotiations, bloody conflicts, and ultimately, the murder of Miantonomo in 1643 by the Mohegan at the instigation of the commissioners of the United Colonies.
Shifting Dynamics and the Seeds of Future Conflict
The alliance between Uncas and the colony of Connecticut persisted for more than 40 years. However, it placed upon Connecticut the burden of supporting a treacherous and grasping Indian chief. It also created significant confusion regarding land titles in the eastern part of the colony due to indiscriminate Indian grants. Furthermore, it sparked the infamous Mohegan controversy, which agitated both the colony and England, remaining unresolved until 1773, 130 years later. Finally, it contributed, at least in part, to King Philip’s War due to the colony’s support of the Mohegan against their traditional enemies, the Narragansett and Niantic.
The constant presence of Indians in and around the colonies necessitated frequent interactions with them. English settlers generally purchased land from the Indians, paying with goods, implements, or trinkets. However, it is likely that the Indians perceived these transactions as granting the right to occupy the land in common with them, rather than transferring ownership of the soil itself.
Over time, issues such as reservations, trade, and the sale of firearms and liquor became central concerns for colonial authorities, leading to the enactment of numerous laws. The conversion of Indians to Christianity also became the focus of pious efforts, resulting in the establishment of communities of "Praying Indians" in Massachusetts and Plymouth, estimated to number around 4,000 individuals in 1675.
Unfortunately, contact with the white man often led to the deterioration of Indian societies. Indians frequented the settlements, often causing annoyance to men and fear to women and children. They often fell into debt, displayed a tendency towards sloth and idleness, and developed an uncontrollable desire for alcohol and theft. While some Indians posed a menace, others were simply a nuisance, prompting the colonies to pass numerous laws designed to address both conditions. These are all telling signs that the Colonial Indian Wars were almost inevitable.
However, the real danger to New England stemmed not from those Indians who occupied reservations and frequented the settlements, but from those who, with their savage spirits unbroken, were being driven from their hunting grounds and harbored an implacable hatred towards the aggressive and relentless pioneers. The New Englanders numbered approximately 80,000 individuals, with an adult and fighting population of perhaps 16,000, while the Indian population may have reached as high as 12,000, with the Narragansett, the strongest of all, mustering 4,000 warriors. The final and most devastating struggle for control of central and southern New England erupted in 1675, in what is known as King Philip’s War. This marked a crucial turning point in the Colonial Indian Wars, solidifying the colonists’ grip on the land while devastating the native populations.