Disease and Death on the Overland Trails
"We have not moved today. Our sick ones not able to go. The sickness on the road is alarming – most all proves fatal." – Lydian Allen Rudd, 1852.
The westward expansion of the United States in the 19th century was a monumental undertaking, fueled by dreams of prosperity, fertile land, and a new beginning. Thousands of emigrants embarked on arduous journeys along the Overland Trails, traversing vast stretches of wilderness in covered wagons. However, this pursuit of a better life was fraught with peril, and the specter of disease and death loomed large over the pioneers. Healthcare on the frontier was rudimentary at best, and the harsh conditions of the trail exacerbated the spread of illness, resulting in tragically high mortality rates. Many families who set out with hope in their hearts arrived at their destinations diminished, having lost loved ones to the relentless grip of disease.
The stark reality of life on the Overland Trails was that disease, by a considerable margin, proved to be the most formidable adversary. It is estimated that illness accounted for nine out of ten pioneer deaths. The combination of unrelenting weather, a severely restricted diet, and the sheer physical exhaustion of the journey left travelers exceptionally vulnerable to infectious diseases. Cholera, influenza, dysentery, measles, mumps, tuberculosis, and typhoid fever were among the most prevalent and deadly ailments, capable of rapidly sweeping through entire wagon camps, leaving a trail of suffering and despair in their wake.
Ironically, many pioneers ventured west with the hope of escaping the disease and squalor that plagued the burgeoning Eastern cities. They envisioned a pristine environment of clean air and water, a haven from the illnesses that gripped the more settled regions. Yet, in their westward migration, these very emigrants inadvertently altered the environment of the West, introducing new bacteria and viruses to which both the land and its inhabitants had little or no immunity. This unintentional consequence amplified the challenges faced by those already struggling to survive in a harsh and unforgiving landscape. The Overland Trails became pathways not only of hope but also of unintended biological disruption.
These outbreaks of disease unleashed widespread turmoil along the Overland Trails, indiscriminately affecting both the pioneers and the indigenous Native American populations. Among the numerous afflictions that plagued the westward travelers, cholera emerged as the most feared and deadly foe on the Oregon-California Trail. This highly contagious and rapidly devastating illness became synonymous with the dangers of the journey, claiming countless lives and leaving an indelible mark of sorrow on the history of westward expansion.
Cholera: The Unseen Destroyer
The conditions prevalent along the Overland Trails created a perfect storm for the spread of cholera. Opportunities for maintaining basic hygiene, such as bathing and laundering, were severely limited. Safe drinking water was often scarce, and what was available was frequently contaminated. Human and animal waste, garbage, and decaying animal carcasses were often located in close proximity to the water sources used by the emigrants. This lack of sanitation created a breeding ground for disease, and cholera, known ominously as the "unseen destroyer," thrived in these unsanitary conditions. The disease, spread through contaminated water, became the leading cause of death on the overland trails to California and Oregon.
The onset of cholera was swift and brutal. Symptoms typically began with a mild stomach ache that quickly escalated into excruciating abdominal pain within a matter of minutes. The disease rapidly attacked the intestinal lining, causing severe diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and intense pain. The body was quickly depleted of fluids and electrolytes, leading to rapid dehydration and shock. Within hours, the skin would begin to wrinkle and turn a ghastly blue color, a telltale sign of the disease’s devastating progress. In the 19th century, no known cure or effective treatment existed for cholera, and infected emigrants often succumbed to the disease within 24 hours or less.
Cholera is believed to have originated in India and rapidly spread across the globe along well-established trade routes. The disease first appeared in America in 1832, and within a year, it had reached St. Louis, Missouri, traveling from New Orleans, Louisiana, via the Mississippi River. From there, it spread westward along the Missouri River via the riverboats, carrying the deadly bacterium to the very doorstep of the Overland Trails.
The epidemic struck St. Louis with devastating force in the early months of 1849. By the end of summer, estimates of the death toll ranged from a staggering 4,500 to 6,000 people. As the California Gold Rush gained momentum in 1849, travelers unwittingly carried the cholera bacteria along the Santa Fe Trail and other overland routes. The unsanitary conditions along the trails provided an ideal environment for the epidemic to flourish. The peak of the cholera outbreak coincided with the massive influx of pioneers seeking their fortunes in the goldfields during 1849 and 1850.
The exact number of deaths along the Overland Trails is difficult to ascertain with certainty, but estimates suggest that cholera claimed as many as 5,000 lives in 1849 alone. The losses were even greater in 1850, prompting one Missouri newspaper to report that along a particular stretch of the Overland Trail, an average of one person per mile died from the disease. The allure of gold, historian George Groh observed, acted as the wind that fanned the flames of the cholera epidemic.
Between 1849 and 1855, thousands of travelers traversing the combined California, Oregon, and Mormon Trails fell victim to cholera. Most were buried in unmarked graves scattered across the plains of Kansas, Nebraska, and Wyoming. The grave of Rebecca Winters, though also considered part of the Mormon Trail, stands as one of the few marked graves that remain as a somber reminder of the disease’s impact.
Frontier outposts were particularly vulnerable to the ravages of cholera. In the summer of 1855, the disease struck Fort Riley, Kansas, claiming the life of the commanding officer, Major E. A. Ogden, along with approximately 70 other individuals. The Platte River region in Nebraska and Wyoming experienced the highest infection rates during these years. The brackish water of the Platte made the freshwater streams that drained into it highly desirable camping spots. However, as hundreds of emigrants used these streams for bathing and drinking, they became fertile breeding grounds for cholera. The grim consequence was that the dead were sometimes found lying in rows of 50 or more.
Fortunately, once the emigrants passed Fort Laramie, Wyoming, they were largely safe from cholera, as the higher elevations were less conducive to the spread of the disease.
"People were continually hurrying past us in their desperate haste to escape the dreadful epidemic." – Ezra Meeker, speaking of cholera on the trail, 1852.
The nomadic Native American tribes also suffered grievously from the same conditions that afflicted the western-bound pioneers. It is estimated that as many as one-half of the Pawnee and two-thirds of the Southern Cheyenne populations perished from cholera between 1849 and 1852. Reports among the Comanche indicated that the survivors lacked the strength to bury the countless dead. Arapaho legends tell of individuals who chose to take their own lives rather than face the dreaded sickness.
At the time of these outbreaks, the best course of treatment for cholera infections remained unknown. Medical practitioners could offer little to the pioneers beyond prescribing camphor and laudanum, which provided some pain relief but did nothing to cure the disease. The sudden and devastating nature of cholera epidemics horrified both white physicians and Native American healers as they struggled to combat the disease. During the epidemics of 1849-1852, a frontier doctor named Andrew Still commented on the local treatments at the Shawnee Indian Mission in Kansas, describing a bizarre and ultimately ineffective method that involved positioning the patient over holes in the ground.
Other Diseases and Ailments
While cholera was the most prominent killer on the Overland Trails, western-bound pioneers also contended with a wide array of other diseases and ailments. Malaria, tuberculosis, measles, scarlet fever, mumps, influenza, and whooping cough were among the many health challenges faced by the emigrants.
In rare instances, pioneers could seek medical assistance from the post-surgeon at a nearby military base. However, these doctors, when available, often prescribed mercury and calomel (a laxative) in the hope of purging infectious matter, regardless of the specific ailment. More commonly, pioneers relied on home remedies or turned to anyone within the wagon train who possessed even a rudimentary understanding of medicine, such as experience with animal birthing or bone setting.
Various other diseases, such as Diphtheria, Dysentery, Head and Body Lice, Influenza, Malaria, Mountain Fever, Measles, Pneumonia, Scurvy, Summer Complaint, Syphilis, Tuberculosis, and Typhoid Fever were also common.
Medicine and Treatments
"Passed through St. Joseph on the Missouri River. Laid in our flour, cheese, crackers, and medicine, for no one should travel this road without medicine, for they are almost sure to have the summer complaint. Each family should have a box of physicing pills, a quart of castor oil, a quart of the best rum and a large vial of peppermint essence." – Elizabeth Dixon Smith
Recognizing the inherent dangers of the journey, trail pioneers were encouraged to bring medical kits to treat diseases and wounds. These kits might contain a variety of items, including pills, castor oil, rum or whiskey, peppermint oil, quinine for malaria, hartshorn for snakebite, citric acid for scurvy, opium, laudanum, morphine, calomel, and tincture of camphor. Some travelers also carried popular home remedy reference books, such as The Family Nurse, Gunn’s Domestic Medicine, and the Family Hand Book.
While a wagon train caravan might occasionally include a doctor, many people had grown distrustful of medical professionals by the mid-1800s. At the time, anyone could claim to be a doctor, leading to a proliferation of unqualified and unprofessional individuals. It became widely known that these medical practitioners often lacked a genuine understanding of how to cure disease, and several states had even ceased certifying and licensing doctors. One of the most significant problems was that many doctors, unaware of the existence of germs, unknowingly infected their patients by failing to change clothes, clean their instruments, or even wash their hands between patients.
Even well-trained doctors were often powerless in the face of disease, resorting to treatments such as purgatives and emetics, believing that they could expel the illness through the gut. Furthermore, these practitioners rarely possessed proper surgical instruments on the trail, often resorting to using butcher knives, carpenters’ handsaws, and shoemaker awls. Numerous accounts of "doctor disasters" circulated among the emigrants, highlighting the dangers of relying on incompetent or poorly equipped medical professionals.
More often, pioneers turned to the gentler and more familiar "granny medicine," practiced by women on the trail. These folk healers relied on herbal remedies and traditional practices passed down through generations. While sometimes successful, their treatments were often no more effective than those of the "doctors."
The Overland Trails stand as a testament to the indomitable spirit of those who sought a better life in the West, but also as a stark reminder of the suffering and loss that accompanied their journey.