Early History of Iowa
By Charles Henry Meyerholz, 1912
(Editor’s Note: This article, written in 1912, predates research indicating that the earliest inhabitants of what is now Iowa were the Clovis people. For more information, refer to Native American Archaeological Periods.)
The story of Iowa begins long before European exploration, etched into the land by the hands of its earliest inhabitants. While historical evidence points to the Mound Builders as significant early occupants, unearthed artifacts – crude tools, human skulls, and skeletal remains – suggest the presence of a people even predating them in the Mississippi Valley. Details about this earlier civilization remain scarce, but prevailing thought positions them as less advanced than the Mound Builders who followed.
The Enigmatic Mound Builders
The Early History of Iowa is inextricably linked with the Mound Builders, a culture that left behind tangible evidence of their existence. Their very name derives from their distinctive practice: constructing large earthen mounds, primarily used as burial sites for their deceased. These mounds are scattered throughout the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys, with a notable concentration along the bluffs of the Mississippi River in Iowa.
Excavations of these mounds have yielded a wealth of information about the Mound Builders’ society and lifestyle. Within these earthen structures, archaeologists have discovered human skeletons interred alongside axes and other tools fashioned from stone, copper vessels, stone knives, and intricately carved stone effigies of birds and animals. The highest concentration of these mounds in Iowa stretches along the Mississippi River, extending southward from Dubuque to Des Moines County. Evidence of their presence also extends westward, with similar mounds discovered in the Des Moines Valley and as far as the Little Sioux River. The artifacts and construction techniques suggest a level of civilization and societal organization far exceeding that of the Native American tribes who later inhabited the region. The duration and nature of the interaction between the Mound Builders and these later arrivals remains a subject of speculation, as does the eventual displacement of the Mound Builders.
The Arrival of Native American Tribes
Following the departure or decline of the Mound Builders, various Native American tribes became the dominant inhabitants of Iowa. These tribes, while perhaps not as architecturally inclined as their predecessors, possessed a distinct culture and connection to the land. In contrast to some of the more aggressively expansionist tribes found elsewhere in the United States, the Native American tribes of Iowa were known for their relatively less warlike nature. While they could be formidable adversaries and even treacherous in conflict, they also demonstrated bravery and loyalty, fostering positive relationships with many of the European settlers who eventually arrived.
The tribes asserted their claim to the land based on conquest and continued occupation, positioning themselves as the second major group to hold dominion over the Iowa territory. However, European powers adhered to a different set of principles. The prevailing European doctrine held that lands discovered or inhabited by "uncivilized" peoples were subject to claim and settlement by any Christian nation. While acknowledging the Native Americans’ right to occupy the land, European nations maintained that their "discovery" and subsequent settlement granted them the right to extinguish the Indigenous title of occupancy. This legal framework laid the foundation for future conflicts and land disputes. This is a key part of the Early History of Iowa.
European Claims and Shifting Allegiances
The exploration of North America by Europeans began in the 15th century. In the early 16th century, France established extensive settlements in the St. Lawrence Valley and subsequently expanded westward, establishing trading posts along the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers. A pivotal moment occurred in the spring of 1673 when Father Jacques Marquette, a French Jesuit missionary, and Louis Joliet, a French-Canadian fur trader, traversed the Great Lakes and followed the Wisconsin River to its confluence with the Mississippi. Their journey down the Mississippi River likely made them the first Europeans to set eyes on the land that would become Iowa. They made landfall on June 25, 1673, at the mouth of the Des Moines River. In 1682, Robert de La Salle, another French explorer, navigated the Illinois River and proceeded down the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico.
Based on these expeditions, France laid claim to the entire territory drained by the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, christening it Louisiana in honor of King Louis XIV. With this declaration, France became another claimant to the soil of Iowa, setting the stage for future conflicts and territorial disputes.
However, the French claim was soon challenged by England. A dispute arose concerning the ownership of the territory encompassing the St. Lawrence and Ohio River valleys. Tensions escalated as both English and French settlers began establishing settlements in the Ohio Valley, leading to open warfare in 1755. The conflict concluded with the Treaty of Paris in 1763, which saw France cede to England all of Canada, excluding three small islands near Newfoundland, and its possessions east of the Mississippi River, with the exception of New Orleans. France subsequently ceded its possessions west of the Mississippi River, including New Orleans, to Spain. This transfer of power granted Spain undisputed ownership of the soil of Iowa, at least for a time.
The conclusion of the French Revolution around 1799 ushered in the era of Napoleon Bonaparte, who quickly ascended to become the dominant ruler in Europe. He forged new alliances with leading European nations. Through the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso on October 1, 1800, Spain ceded the territory west of the Mississippi River back to France. Consequently, France once again became the owner of the territory that included present-day Iowa. However, France faced a formidable rival in England and was eager to diminish its power and territorial holdings. Napoleon feared that England would seize Louisiana and annex it to its existing territories.
Simultaneously, the United States was grappling with significant challenges related to the navigation of the lower Mississippi River. While Spain still held ownership of the Louisiana Territory and the land on both sides of the Mississippi’s mouth, Spanish authorities frequently imposed exorbitant duties on goods shipped up the river destined for towns within the United States. These issues persisted even after France regained the territory from Spain in 1800. Congress resolved to negotiate a new treaty with France and, if feasible, to purchase the territory on either side of the river’s mouth. President Thomas Jefferson instructed Robert Livingston, the then-minister to France, to initiate treaty negotiations, and later dispatched James Monroe to assist in the process. The Early History of Iowa is significantly influenced by these actions.
The resulting treaty, signed on April 30, 1803, saw France sell the entire Louisiana Territory to the United States. This landmark agreement brought Iowa under the possession of the United States, marking a significant turning point in its history.
Territorial Organization and Governance
On October 31, 1803, Congress passed legislation placing the Louisiana Territory under the direct control of the President, who was granted the authority to exercise all military, civil, and judicial powers through appointed officers. On March 26, 1804, Congress further divided the Louisiana Territory along the thirty-third parallel, designating the southern portion as the Territory of Orleans and the northern portion as the District of Louisiana. Later, the northern portion was renamed the Territory of Louisiana, which included present-day Iowa.
On June 4, 1812, Congress passed an act renaming the Territory of Louisiana to the Territory of Missouri and establishing an organized form of government. Iowa remained a part of the Territory of Missouri until Missouri was admitted as a state on August 10, 1821. Following Missouri’s statehood, the remaining territory of Missouri remained without a formal government until it was incorporated into the Territory of Michigan in 1834. On April 20, 1836, Michigan was reduced to its present size, and the remaining territory was organized under the name of Wisconsin. From 1836 until June 12, 1838, Iowa was part of the Wisconsin Territory. On that date, it was separated from Wisconsin, and the portion of Wisconsin Territory lying west of the Mississippi River was organized as the Territory of Iowa.
The initial boundaries of Iowa Territory were defined as follows: the State of Missouri to the south, the Missouri and White Earth Rivers to the west, Canada to the north, and the Mississippi River and a line extending due north from its headwaters to the Canadian border to the east. This expansive territory included the present State of Iowa and portions of what would become the states of Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Iowa remained a territory until December 28, 1846, when it was admitted into the Union as the 29th state.
Early Settlements and Encounters
When Europeans first ventured into the lands west of the Mississippi River, they encountered Native American tribes residing in wigwams clustered in villages along hillsides and streams. These tribes sustained themselves through hunting, fishing, and a rudimentary form of agriculture, cultivating maize and other grains using simple tools. Iowa provided an ideal environment for the Native Americans. Its hills and valleys teemed with deer, while the prairies supported vast herds of buffalo. Wild turkeys, prairie chickens, grouse, and other game birds were plentiful in the meadows and thickets. Additionally, the land offered an abundance of plums, grapes, and other wild fruits.
The Native Americans, in turn, found evidence of their predecessors in the Mound Builders. The numerous earthen mounds along the Mississippi River bluffs spoke to the life and customs of this earlier civilization. The departure of the Mound Builders was likely hastened by the arrival of warlike Native American tribes from both the east and the west. Some of the most prominent tribes in Iowa included the Sioux, who dominated the northern regions of Iowa and Minnesota, extending into Dakota; the Sac and Fox, who roamed the plains of Iowa, Illinois, and Wisconsin and were part of the Algonquin tribe from the eastern Middle States; the Iowa tribe in the southern part of the state; and the Dakota from the northwest. Other tribes present included the Winnebago, Potawatomi, Chippewa, Ottawa, and Illinois. Many counties, cities, and towns in Iowa derive their names from these Native American tribes and chiefs.
The transfer of land from Native American tribes to white settlers occurred through numerous treaties negotiated by representatives of the United States and the tribes. The government compensated the tribes for the territory, with the terms of the agreements documented in writing. However, the Native Americans often found themselves at a disadvantage in these negotiations, frequently being outmaneuvered by the settlers’ shrewdness. Brightly colored blankets, firearms, and whiskey were often used to acquire land for less than its true value. A notable treaty in this process was the one in 1830, when the United States purchased a significant portion of western Iowa from the Sac, Sioux, Omaha, Otoe, and Missouri tribes for a relatively small sum. Another large area was acquired through the Black Hawk Purchase in 1833, and in 1836, the more than 400 square miles reserved for the Sac and Fox, comprising Louisa County, was secured by the whites.
More than a century passed after Father Jacques Marquette and Joliet first landed on Iowa soil before the first white settlers established permanent homes west of the Mississippi River. Julien Dubuque, a Frenchman, is credited as the first white man to settle in Iowa and earn a living from its resources. He arrived in the area that is now the city of Dubuque in 1788. Dubuque learned from the Native Americans about the rich deposits of lead found along the riverbanks and obtained from them the exclusive right to mine the lead. He brought ten French-Canadians with him, and through a treaty signed with the Fox tribe on September 22, 1788, at Prairie du Chien, he acquired the desired lands and commenced mining operations. Dubuque built a log house, planted corn and other grains, and soon provided a comfortable living for his men in the small village. He died in March 1810 and was buried on the bluffs near the village. A wooden cross marked his grave, bearing the inscription "Julien Dubuque, Miner of the mines of Spain."
In 1795, another Frenchman named Basil Gaillard, also known as Giard, settled further north along the river on the present site of McGregor in Clayton County. Gaillard was reportedly acquainted with Dubuque, and the two men occasionally engaged in trade. Years later, after Gaillard’s death, his heirs sold the vast tract of land for the meager sum of $300.00.
A third early settler was Louis Honori, who established a settlement near Montrose in Lee County. He obtained title to his land from the Lieutenant-Governor of Louisiana Territory in 1799. In 1839, the United States issued a title to some of this land, which is considered the earliest title to any soil in Iowa. Shortly after, Dr. Muir, a Scottish surgeon in the army, initially stationed at a frontier fort in Illinois, built a house on the present site of Keokuk. Antoine LeClaire was another early settler who was among the first to settle in Davenport. Colonel George Davenport, a trader and army contractor, settled in Davenport around 1820, and the city was named in his honor.
Two expeditions merit mention in the Early History of Iowa. The first was the Lewis and Clark Expedition, commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson, which departed from St. Louis in 1804. The second was led by Lieutenant Zebulon Montgomery Pike, sent out by the army and also starting from St. Louis a year later. Pike’s mission was to explore the Mississippi River to its source and identify suitable locations for constructing forts to secure the newly acquired territory. Lewis and Clark were instructed to follow the Missouri River to its source and, if possible, explore the country to the Pacific Coast. Like Pike, they were tasked with meeting with Native American tribes, explaining their mission, and fostering friendship through the exchange of gifts. They held a council at a site along the bluffs on the Missouri River, opposite the present location of Council Bluffs. The expedition also visited other places, including Sioux City, in August 1805.
Later settlements were established within the interior of the state along the Des Moines, Iowa, and Cedar Rivers. Many of these early settlements were founded by fur trading companies, including the American Fur Company, the Green Bay Company, and stations controlled by the Chouteaus of St. Louis. Pierre Chouteau, Sr., established a trading post at the present location of Ottumwa. In 1838, the agency for the Sac and Fox Indians was situated at Agency City, with General Joseph M. Street in charge. Settlements gradually expanded northward, and in 1843, a fort was constructed on the site of present-day Des Moines. The fort was initially named Fort Raccoon and commanded by Captain James Allen, but the name was later changed to Des Moines. Fort Clark was another early settlement established in 1850, later renamed Fort Dodge at the suggestion of General Winfield Scott. These forts were established throughout central and western Iowa to provide protection to pioneer settlers as they gradually claimed the land from the Native American tribes. Most of these forts served their purpose only until peaceful settlements were established by white settlers.
The Evolution of Territorial Government
Following the American Revolutionary War, the newly independent colonies gained title to the land between their western boundaries and the Mississippi River. Seven states – Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia – claimed these western lands as part of their colonial holdings. The remaining six states, lacking western land claims, argued that these lands should be ceded to the Federal Government and owned collectively by all states, as they had all contributed to the war effort. These states successfully advocated for their position by withholding their ratification of the Articles of Confederation until the other states relinquished their western land claims.
As early as 1780, it was evident that the Federal Government would ultimately assume ownership of this vast area, commonly known as the Northwest. Three years later, Congress began formulating plans for governing the people who were rapidly settling in the region. On April 23, 1784, Congress passed an Ordinance providing for a temporary government. However, its provisions were not widely accepted, and no settlements were established under its authority. The matter remained under debate in Congress for another four years before any definitive action was taken. Finally, on July 13, 1787, another Act, known as the Northwest Ordinance, was passed by the Congress of the Confederation, establishing a territorial government for the territory northwest of the Ohio River.
An act creating Iowa as a separate territory was passed by Congress on June 12, 1838, encompassing the present State of Iowa and parts of Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Congress retained the right to divide the territory into two or more territories at its discretion. The act also vested executive power in a governor, to be appointed by the President of the United States with the Senate’s consent and to serve a three-year term unless removed by the President. The act also established other territorial offices.
The boundary line between the Territory of Iowa and the State of Missouri soon became a point of contention, prompting Congress to intervene. On June 18, 1838, Congress passed an act establishing a commission to determine and mark the proper division line.
On December 28, 1846, Iowa was admitted to the Union as the 29th state.
Iowa has had three capital cities, both as a territory and as a state. When Wisconsin was initially organized as a separate territory in 1836, a rivalry emerged between the Mississippi River towns for the seat of government. A popular vote ultimately favored Madison, now the state capital of Wisconsin.
The provisional law accepting the people’s choice stipulated a temporary capital in Burlington until a suitable building could be provided in Madison. The capital was to remain in Burlington until March 4, 1839. The first territorial legislature decided to locate the permanent capital further west and established a commission to select a site. The commission ultimately chose a site on the banks of the Iowa River in Johnson County, now occupied by Iowa City. On April 3, 1841, Governor Robert Lucas issued a proclamation moving the capital from Burlington to Iowa City, where it remained throughout the territorial period. Iowa City continued as the capital after statehood, but as settlements expanded westward, sentiment grew to locate the capital closer to the state’s center.
Des Moines, then the only town of significant size in the central part of the state, was selected as the permanent capital. In November 1857, the capital was relocated to Des Moines, with records, furniture, and state office equipment transported across the country on bob-sleds and placed in the new building. The temporary capitol building in Des Moines was a three-story structure resembling a modern school building. Construction of the current capitol building began in 1873 and was completed 12 years later at a cost of over three million dollars.
By Charles Henry Meyerholz, 1912. Compiled and edited by Kathy Alexander, updated October 2019.
About This Article: The Early History of Iowa was excerpted from the book History and Government of Iowa, by Charles Henry Meyerholz, Educational Publishing Company, 1912. However, the text is not verbatim, as it has been heavily edited and truncated.