Fighting for the Plains: Sitting Bull vs. the U.S. Army

Introduction: Two Eras of Native American Resistance and Service

The history of Native American peoples in the United States is often framed around conflict and dispossession, yet it is equally a story of strategic resistance, cultural resilience, and profound contributions to the nation that once sought to erase them. From the Great Plains in the 1870s to the Pacific theater of World War II, Native leaders and communities navigated immense pressures while asserting their sovereignty and protecting their heritage. This article examines two pivotal and seemingly disparate chapters: the armed resistance led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse against U.S. expansion into the Black Hills, and the extraordinary service of Navajo Code Talkers whose sacred language became an unbreakable weapon for the Allies. Together, these narratives reveal the enduring tension between assimilation and autonomy, and the ways in which Native peoples have shaped American history on their own terms.

Fighting for the Plains: Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse

In the decades following the Civil War, the United States accelerated its westward expansion, driven by the discovery of gold in the Black Hills (Paha Sapa), a region sacred to the Lakota Sioux. The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 had guaranteed the Lakota ownership of the Black Hills and the surrounding hunting grounds, but the influx of miners and settlers made the treaty increasingly untenable. By 1874, Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer led an expedition into the Black Hills, confirming gold deposits and further provoking the Lakota and their Northern Cheyenne allies.

Leaders of Resistance

Sitting Bull (Tatanka Iyotake), a Hunkpapa Lakota holy man and chief, emerged as a central figure of resistance. Known for his spiritual authority and diplomatic skill, he refused to cede Lakota lands and called for unity among the tribes. Crazy Horse (Tasunke Witko), an Oglala Lakota war leader, was renowned for his tactical brilliance and humility. Together, they embodied a dual leadership: spiritual guidance and military prowess.

In 1876, the U.S. Army launched a campaign to force all Lakota onto reservations. On June 17, 1876, Crazy Horse and his warriors intercepted General George Crook’s column at the Battle of the Rosebud, forcing a retreat. Just eight days later, on June 25–26, Custer’s 7th Cavalry attacked a massive encampment on the Little Bighorn River. The resulting Battle of the Little Bighorn—often called Custer’s Last Stand—was a decisive Native victory, though it would ultimately provoke a devastating military response.

Aftermath and Legacy

Following the battle, the U.S. Army pursued the Lakota relentlessly. Crazy Horse surrendered in 1877 and was killed later that year under questionable circumstances. Sitting Bull led his people to Canada before returning to the U.S. and eventually settling on the Standing Rock Reservation. He was killed in 1890 during a botched arrest that preceded the Wounded Knee Massacre. The resistance failed militarily, but it remains a powerful symbol of Native sovereignty and courage.

For deeper context on the causes of such resistance movements, see historical causes of Native American resistance movements.

The Navajo Code Talkers: Language as Shield and Weapon

During World War II, as the United States fought in the Pacific, military planners sought a secure communication code that could not be broken by Japanese cryptographers. The solution came from an unlikely source: the Navajo language (Diné Bizaad), a complex, unwritten language with no published grammar. In 1942, the first group of 29 Navajo men enlisted in the U.S. Marine Corps and developed a code based on their language. Their service became one of the best-kept secrets of the war, remaining classified for decades.

Samuel Sandoval: A Code Talker’s Journey

Samuel Sandoval (1923–2014) was one of the last surviving original Code Talkers. Raised on the Navajo Nation in New Mexico, he enlisted at age 18, motivated by a desire to defend his homeland despite a history of government mistreatment of his people. In training, he and his fellow Code Talkers developed a code that associated Navajo words with specific military terms, creating a lexicon that was memorized—never written—due to the historical impact of boarding schools on Native American languages. The code proved unbreakable; the Japanese never deciphered it.

Recognition and Legacy

Zonnie Gorman, daughter of Code Talker Carl Gorman, has dedicated her life to preserving their legacy. She notes that her father and his peers used their native language to secure every major Pacific battle, from Guadalcanal to Iwo Jima, and that as Major Connor noted, ‘without them, Iwo Jima would never have been taken.’ Their contributions were acknowledged only in 1968, and in 2001 the original 29 were awarded the Congressional Gold Medal. The Code Talkers’ story demonstrates how cultural knowledge, often repressed, became a source of national strength.

From Persecution to Service

The use of Native languages in warfare did not begin with the Navajo in WWII. During World War I, the U.S. Army employed Cherokee and Choctaw soldiers as code talkers, even as assimilationist policies at home sought to erase those same languages. This paradox—valuing Native languages in wartime while suppressing them in peacetime—underscores the complex relationship between the U.S. government and Native nations.

Historical Context & Key Cultural Takeaways

The Question of Sovereignty

Both the Plains resistance and the Code Talker legacy revolve around tribal sovereignty. Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse fought to preserve Lakota independence and treaty rights. The Navajo Code Talkers served a country that had not fully recognized their citizenship (Native Americans did not gain universal citizenship until 1924), yet they did so with pride, demonstrating that sovereignty includes the right to determine one’s own participation in national defense.

Cultural Resiliency

Despite the loss of land and attempts to erase Native languages, the underlying cultures proved resilient. The Lakota political structure and spiritual practices endure, and the Navajo language, far from disappearing, became a valued asset. The Code Talkers’ success is a testament to the value of Indigenous knowledge.

Historical Facts at a Glance

• 1868: Fort Laramie Treaty guarantees Lakota ownership of the Black Hills.
• 1876: Battle of the Little Bighorn; Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse lead Lakota-Cheyenne forces to victory.
• 1890: Wounded Knee Massacre marks the end of the Plains Indian Wars.
• 1942: First 29 Navajo Code Talkers enlist; code developed and deployed in the Pacific.
• 1968: Code Talker program declassified.
• 2001: Original Code Talkers awarded Congressional Gold Medals.

For further reading on the cultural significance of Native American heritage, explore historical resilience of Native American cultures against assimilation.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Who were the original Navajo Code Talkers?

The original group consisted of 29 Navajo men who enlisted in the U.S. Marine Corps in 1942 and developed the code based on their language. Their names are inscribed in history, and their service was recognized with the Congressional Gold Medal in 2001.

2. How did the Lakota view the Fort Laramie Treaty?

The Lakota regarded the 1868 treaty as a binding agreement that guaranteed their sovereignty over the Black Hills. The U.S. government’s failure to honor it, particularly after the discovery of gold, was seen as a direct betrayal, leading to the Great Sioux War of 1876.

3. What was the significance of Sitting Bull’s leadership?

Sitting Bull was not only a war chief but also a spiritual leader whose vision of Native unity was instrumental in bringing together various Lakota bands and their Cheyenne allies. His influence extended beyond the battlefield to diplomacy and cultural preservation.

4. How were Native American languages used in World War I?

During WWI, soldiers from the Cherokee and Choctaw Nations used their languages to transmit coded messages, laying the groundwork for the more elaborate Navajo code system of WWII. These efforts remained largely unacknowledged at the time.

5. Where can I learn more about Code Talker heritage?

The Navajo Nation Museum and the Smithsonian’s National Museum of the American Indian hold exhibits and archives on Code Talkers. Additionally, Zonnie Gorman and other family members continue to share their stories through lectures and publications.

Concluding Synthesis: Legacy and Preservation

The stories of Sitting Bull and the Navajo Code Talkers are separated by decades and geography, but they share a common thread: the defense of Native identity and sovereignty. The Plains wars ended in tragedy, yet they forged a legacy of resistance that continues to inspire. The Code Talkers turned a sacred language into a tool of victory, challenging the very policies that sought to suppress it. Today, these histories are preserved through tribal museums, oral traditions, and the ongoing work of historians like Zonnie Gorman. For those interested in the broader context of Native American art and heritage, see how did Native American art evolve historically. As we reflect on these events, we are reminded that Native American history is not a closed chapter but a living testament to resilience and adaptation.