Navajo Long Walk to the Bosque Redondo

"Officials called it a reservation, but to the conquered and exiled Navajos, it was a wretched prison camp." – David Roberts, Smithsonian Magazine

The Navajo Long Walk to the Bosque Redondo stands as a harrowing chapter in American history, a testament to the brutal displacement and suffering inflicted upon the Navajo people by the United States government. This forced removal, occurring between 1863 and 1864, represents a period of immense hardship and loss, etching a deep scar into the collective memory of the Navajo Nation. The story of the Navajo Long Walk to the Bosque Redondo is not merely a historical account; it’s a living narrative of resilience, survival, and the enduring spirit of a people determined to preserve their culture and identity.

The seeds of this tragic event were sown in the mid-19th century, as westward expansion brought increasing numbers of Anglo-American settlers into traditional Navajo territories. Initially, relations between the newcomers and the Navajo were relatively peaceful. However, this fragile peace began to unravel following the death of Narbona, a highly respected Navajo leader, in 1849. This event marked a turning point, fueling distrust and escalating tensions between the two groups.

By the 1850s, the U.S. government sought to exert greater control over the region by establishing military forts within Navajo lands. Fort Defiance in Arizona and Fort Wingate in northeast New Mexico became symbols of the encroaching U.S. military presence. Further exacerbating the situation, the Bonneville Treaty of 1858 reduced the land available to the Navajo, diminishing their ability to sustain their traditional way of life. Compounding these challenges, a U.S. Army leader and Indian agent perceived as pro-Navajo was reassigned to West Point, leaving the Navajo feeling vulnerable and unprotected.

The 1860s witnessed a surge in westward migration, leading to intensified competition for resources and land. The Mescalero Apache and Navajo people, fiercely protective of their ancestral territories and way of life, resisted the encroachment with increasing determination. Under the command of William T. H. Brooks, the new commander of Fort Defiance, a destructive cycle of raids and counter-raids ensued. This escalating conflict reached a critical point on April 30, 1860, when approximately 1,000 Navajo warriors, led by the formidable Manuelito and Barboncito, launched a near-successful attack on Fort Defiance.

Despite the signing of another treaty on February 15, 1861, relations continued to deteriorate. A dispute over a horse race, marred by allegations of unfairness, culminated in the massacre of 30 Native Americans on September 22, 1861. This brutal act, ordered by Colonel Manuel Chaves, commander of Fort Wingate, served as a catalyst for the implementation of plans to forcibly relocate the Navajo. The seeds of the Navajo Long Walk to the Bosque Redondo were firmly planted.

General James H. Carleton, the U.S. Army commander in New Mexico, conceived the plan for the removal. It envisioned the forced relocation of the Navajo from their extensive native lands, encompassing areas in northeastern Arizona, western New Mexico, and stretching north into Utah and Colorado. Carleton’s strategy aimed to subdue the Navajo and confine them to a designated reservation.

To achieve this objective, the U.S. Army launched a campaign of destruction against the Mescalero Apache and Navajo tribes. Their fields were burned, orchards destroyed, homes razed, and livestock decimated. This scorched-earth policy was designed to break the will of the Navajo and force them into submission. Even before the Navajo were fully defeated, Congress authorized the establishment of Fort Sumner at Bosque Redondo on October 31, 1862, a 40-square-mile area designated as the first Indian reservation west of Oklahoma.

Despite warnings from some officers regarding the unsuitability of Bosque Redondo due to its poor water quality and scarcity of firewood, the site was chosen nonetheless. The government’s plan was to transform the Apache and Navajo into farmers by irrigating the land with water from the Pecos River. Furthermore, they were to be "civilized" through mandatory schooling and the adoption of Christianity.

The Apache and Navajo, weakened by the relentless army attacks, were gradually starved into submission. In January 1864, following a final standoff at Canyon de Chelly, the Navajo surrendered to Kit Carson and his troops. Acting under orders from his U.S. Army superiors, Carson oversaw the destruction of their remaining property and organized the infamous Navajo Long Walk to the Bosque Redondo. The Mescalero Apache were already present at the reservation.

The Navajo Long Walk to the Bosque Redondo involved the forced march of approximately 8,500 men, women, and children, a journey of nearly 300 miles from northeastern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico to Bosque Redondo, a desolate tract along the Pecos River in eastern New Mexico. The journey, undertaken in harsh winter conditions, lasted nearly two months. The Navajo endured immense suffering, with an estimated 200 losing their lives to cold, starvation, and exhaustion. Many more perished after arriving at the barren reservation.

Some Navajo managed to escape the forced relocation, seeking refuge in the territories of the Chiricahua Apache, the Grand Canyon, Navajo Mountain, and in Utah. These individuals represented pockets of resistance, determined to maintain their freedom and connection to their ancestral lands.

Bosque Redondo, named for a grove of cottonwood trees along the river, proved to be a disastrous choice for a reservation. The site became a virtual prison camp for the Native Americans. The brackish water of the Pecos River caused severe intestinal problems, and disease spread rapidly through the overcrowded conditions. Armyworms decimated the corn crop, and the limited wood supply was quickly depleted. On November 3, 1865, most of the Mescalero Apache, unable to tolerate the appalling conditions, eluded their military guards and fled the reservation. The Navajo, however, were forced to endure another three years of hardship before the U.S. government finally acknowledged the failure of its assimilation policy.

Bosque Redondo was universally recognized as a miserable failure, plagued by poor planning, disease outbreaks, crop infestations, and the overall unsuitability of the land for agriculture. The Navajo Long Walk to the Bosque Redondo and the subsequent confinement represent a period of profound trauma and loss for the Navajo people.

In 1868, the U.S. government signed a historic treaty with the Navajo, finally acknowledging their sovereignty and allowing them to return to their homeland. The Navajo returned to their land along the Arizona-New Mexico border, impoverished and in tatters. Though their territory was significantly reduced compared to what they had occupied before the Navajo Long Walk to the Bosque Redondo, they were one of the few tribes permitted to return to their native lands. The U.S. government provided them with rations and sheep, and within a few years, the Navajo successfully rebuilt their livestock herds and began to prosper once again.

The Navajo Long Walk to the Bosque Redondo, despite its devastating impact, serves as a powerful symbol of the Navajo people’s unwavering spirit and resilience. Their ability to endure unimaginable hardship, maintain their cultural identity, and rebuild their lives after such a profound loss is a testament to their strength and determination. The story of the Long Walk continues to be passed down through generations, reminding the Navajo people of their past and inspiring them to face the challenges of the future with courage and hope.