The National Road – First Highway in America
The early 19th Century witnessed a significant transformation in the American landscape. The untamed wilderness of Ohio, once a formidable barrier, gradually yielded to the burgeoning tide of westward expansion and settlement. Replacing the rudimentary path forged by George Washington, known as Braddock Road, a new artery of commerce and migration emerged: The National Road.
Envisioned as a vital link between the Eastern Seaboard and the burgeoning territories of the West, The National Road carved an impressive 820-mile path through six states: Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. Its construction, spanning from 1811 to 1834, marked a pivotal moment in American history, as it became the first federally funded road project in the United States. This ambitious undertaking was born from the conviction of Presidents George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, who recognized the imperative of a trans-Appalachian road to unify the young and geographically diverse nation.
The genesis of The National Road can be traced to March 29, 1806, when Congress, recognizing the strategic importance of such a route, authorized its construction. President Thomas Jefferson promptly signed the act, formally establishing what was initially christened the Cumberland Road. This ambitious project aimed to connect Cumberland, Maryland, a strategic point on the eastern edge of the Appalachian Mountains, to the Ohio River, a vital artery for westward expansion and commerce.
The initial contract for the construction of the first segment of The National Road was awarded to Henry McKinley on May 8, 1811. Construction commenced later that year, driven by the labor of countless workers, surveyors, and engineers. By 1817, the road had reached Cumberland, Maryland, and Uniontown, Pennsylvania, marking significant milestones in its progress. The following year, on August 1, 1818, the road was completed to the Ohio River at Wheeling, West Virginia, opening a crucial gateway to the West. Almost immediately, mail coaches began utilizing the improved route, facilitating communication and trade between the East and the rapidly developing territories beyond the Appalachians. Wheeling served as its western terminus for several years, acting as a vital hub for goods and travelers venturing further into the American heartland.
The ambitious plan for The National Road did not stop at the Ohio River. Driven by the relentless westward expansion, the road was steadily extended through central Ohio and Indiana, finally reaching Vandalia, Illinois, in the 1830s. This extension marked another technological advancement, as the road became the first in the U.S. to employ the innovative macadam road surfacing, a technique that significantly improved the durability and smoothness of the road.
During this decade, a shift in governance occurred as the federal government transferred a portion of the road’s responsibility to the individual states through which it traversed. In response, these states erected tollgates and tollhouses along the route, establishing a system of user fees to fund the road’s maintenance and upkeep. Ambitious plans were also formulated to extend The National Road further westward, aiming to reach St. Louis, Missouri, a strategic city located at the confluence of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, and Jefferson City, situated upstream on the Missouri River. However, the economic downturn triggered by the Panic of 1837 dealt a severe blow to the project. Funding dwindled, and construction was abruptly halted, leaving Vandalia, Illinois, as the road’s ultimate western terminus.
The impact of The National Road on the American landscape and its people was profound and far-reaching. The road’s opening unleashed a wave of westward migration, with thousands of travelers traversing the Allegheny Mountains in search of fertile land and new opportunities in the Ohio River Valley. It also established a vital corridor for the movement of goods and supplies, connecting eastern markets with western settlements and fueling economic growth along its path.
Small towns situated along The National Road‘s route experienced remarkable growth and prosperity, directly attributable to the increased population and commercial activity the road generated. Towns such as Cumberland, Maryland; Uniontown, Brownsville, and Washington, Pennsylvania; and Wheeling, West Virginia, evolved into thriving commercial centers of business and industry. Uniontown, for instance, became the headquarters for three major stagecoach lines, facilitating the transportation of passengers across the National Road. Brownsville flourished as a center for steamboat building and river freight hauling on the Monongahela River, further enhancing its economic importance. Numerous smaller towns and villages that dotted the road were filled with taverns, blacksmith shops, and livery stables, catering to the needs of the travelers and merchants who frequented the route.
Testimonials from the era paint a vivid picture of the bustling activity along The National Road. Thomas Searight recalled witnessing as many as 20 stagecoaches traveling in a line on the road at any given time. Jesse Peirsol, a wagoner, recounted a memorable night at a tavern where 30 six-horse teams were parked in the wagon yard, 100 mules were confined to a pen, 1,000 hogs were enclosed in an enclosure, and an equal number of cattle were grazing in the field.
Taverns played a crucial role in the daily life of The National Road, serving as essential hubs for travelers seeking food, drink, and lodging. Estimates suggest that there was approximately one tavern for every mile of the road. These establishments catered to a diverse clientele, with two primary classes of taverns: the more expensive stagecoach taverns, designed for affluent travelers, and the more affordable wagon stands, which catered to the needs of most travelers. The Mount Washington Tavern, which still stands in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, as part of Fort Necessity National Battlefield, is an example of a well-preserved stagecoach tavern. Regardless of their class, all taverns provided the fundamental necessities of food, drink, and lodging, offering respite and sustenance to those journeying along the National Road.
During the zenith of The National Road‘s popularity, the road bustled with traffic from dawn until dusk. A wide array of vehicles traversed the route, but the two most common were the stagecoach and the Conestoga wagon. Stagecoach travel prioritized speed, with coaches averaging 60 to 70 miles in a single day. The Conestoga wagon, often referred to as the "tractor-trailer" of the 19th Century, was designed to transport heavy freight. These wagons were often brightly painted with red running gears, Prussian blue bodies, and white canvas coverings, adding a touch of color to the bustling road. A Conestoga wagon, pulled by a team of six draft horses, averaged approximately 15 miles per day.
The year 1825 marked the pinnacle of The National Road‘s popularity, with its significance celebrated in song, story, painting, and poetry. During the 1840s, the road experienced another surge in popularity as westbound travelers and drovers packed the inns and taverns along its route. Massive Conestoga wagons transported produce from frontier farms to the East Coast, returning with essential goods such as coffee and sugar for the western settlements. Thousands of people moved west in covered wagons, and stagecoaches maintained regular schedules, transporting passengers and mail along the vital artery.
Robert S. McDowell, in 1848, documented the heavy traffic on The National Road, counting 133 wagons pulled by six-horse teams passing along the road in a single day, not even accounting for the numerous smaller teams with one to five horses.
However, the mid-19th Century brought about technological advancements that would eventually lead to the decline of The National Road. The perfection of the steam locomotive and the expansion of railroads across the Allegheny Mountains revolutionized transportation. The people of Southwestern Pennsylvania fiercely opposed the introduction of railroads into the region, recognizing the potential impact on the National Road. Despite their efforts, the Pennsylvania Railroad was completed to Pittsburgh in 1852, followed shortly after by the B & O Railroad reaching Wheeling, West Virginia. This spelled the end for the National Road, as traffic rapidly declined, and many taverns were forced to close their doors.
A poignant article in Harper’s Magazine in November 1879 reflected on the fading glory of The National Road: "The national turnpike that led over the Alleghenies from the East to the West is a glory departed… Octogenarians who participated in the traffic will tell an enquirer that never before was there such landlords, such taverns, such dinners, such whiskey… or such endless cavalcades of coaches and wagons."
A poet lamented the decline, writing, "We hear no more the clanging hoof and the stagecoach rattling by, for the steam king rules the traveled world, and the Old Pike is left to die."
In 1912, the historic pathway became part of the National Old Trails Road. A few years later, technology, which had initially caused the decline of The National Road, also played a role in its revival with the advent of the automobile in the early 20th Century. As "motor touring" gained popularity, the demand for improved roads increased. Many early wagon and coach roads, including The National Road, were transformed into smoothly paved automobile roads. The Federal Highway Act of 1921 established a program of federal aid to encourage the states to build "an adequate and connected system of highways, interstate in character." In 1926, the grid system of numbering highways was implemented, resulting in the creation of U.S. Route 40, which largely followed the path of the original National Road.
This resurgence spurred a new generation of businesses, with stage taverns and wagon stands being replaced by hotels, motels, restaurants, and diners. The service station superseded the livery stables and blacksmith shops. With the influx of new businesses, some National Road-era buildings were revitalized. Route 40 served as a major east-west artery until the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 established the interstate system. This led to a diversion of traffic and a renewed decline in interest in the National Road.
However, decades later, new generations are rediscovering the charm of these older two-lane roads, finding them a more relaxing alternative to the interstate highways. Today, the old pavement is designated as a National Scenic Byway, where visitors can explore a physical timeline of American history, encountering classic inns, tollhouses, diners, and motels that represent 200 years of the nation’s evolution. Historic buildings, bridges, and stone mile markers along the route are frequently photographed, while old brick schoolhouses from early years, some still in use, some converted to private residences, and others abandoned, dot the countryside.
Numerous sites along The National Road are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, preserving their historical significance for future generations.