The White Massacre on the Santa Fe Trail in New Mexico
The vast expanse of northeastern New Mexico, a landscape etched with the trails of commerce and migration, holds within its rugged beauty a dark chapter of American history. In October of 1849, a tragic event unfolded near the landmark known as Point of Rocks, situated along the Cimarron Branch of the famed Santa Fe Trail. Here, amidst the promise of westward expansion, a wagon train fell victim to the simmering tensions between settlers and the indigenous inhabitants of the land, resulting in what became known as the White Massacre. This incident, steeped in violence and loss, stands as a stark reminder of the brutal realities faced by those who traversed the Santa Fe Trail, and the complex relationship between pioneers and Native American tribes.
The story of the White Massacre begins with two brothers, James and Charles White, ambitious merchants hailing from Warsaw, Missouri. Drawn by the allure of prosperity in the burgeoning territories of the Southwest, they ventured to Santa Fe in July 1848. Establishing a mercantile business, they quickly sought to make their mark. An advertisement placed in the Santa Fe Republican proclaimed their store as offering goods "cheaper than the cheapest," signaling their intent to compete in the bustling Santa Fe market. The summer proved profitable, and Charles, ever the entrepreneur, explored further opportunities south towards Chihuahua, Mexico, while James returned to Missouri to deposit a considerable sum of $58,000 in gold and silver coins.
In February 1849, Charles White partnered with Francois Aubry, a prominent French Canadian merchant and explorer renowned for his knowledge of the American Southwest. Together, they journeyed to Chihuahua via El Paso, Texas, establishing a new mercantile venture in El Paso. After successfully trading their goods, Aubry set out for Independence, Missouri, on August 23. His journey was fraught with peril, as his caravan faced attacks from both Apache and Pawnee warriors. Despite these encounters, Aubry’s party suffered no casualties. Undeterred, he promptly acquired new goods for a return trip to Santa Fe. Simultaneously, James White planned his own return to Santa Fe, accompanied by his wife, Ann Dunn, and their young daughter, Virginia, envisioning a new life for his family in the vibrant New Mexican city. The journey was set against a backdrop of escalating tensions.
The summer of 1849 witnessed a surge in attacks along the Santa Fe Trail. Wagon trains were frequently targeted, their livestock stolen, and their passengers left vulnerable. This escalating unrest prompted James Calhoun, the Santa Fe Indian Agent, to urgently request additional troops on August 15. Calhoun’s plea underscored the gravity of the situation, noting that "the Indians, generally, are in a bad temper – the number of troops is not sufficient here to keep up on them a proper check." This warning, however, did not deter everyone.
Despite the growing dangers, Francois Aubry, leading the caravan, and James White, remained steadfast in their determination to complete their journey. Aubry’s caravan comprised ten wagons belonging to Ceran St. Vrain and thirteen wagons owned by James White. Accompanying James White were his wife, Ann, their daughter Virginia, a mulatto employee named Ben Bushman, and a black female servant who served as Virginia’s nurse. The wagon train departed Westport, Missouri, on September 15. Initially, the journey proceeded without incident, seemingly defying the ominous warnings of Indian unrest. However, the calm was deceptive.
At some point along the trail, Aubry dispatched his wagon master, William Calloway, ahead to Santa Fe to secure fresh mules. Impatient to reach their destination, James White, described as "a veteran of the trail," decided to accompany Calloway, eager to expedite his family’s arrival in Santa Fe. Aubry cautioned against this plan, but James was resolute. He loaded his wife, daughter, Ben Bushman, and the nursemaid into two carriages, accompanied by a German traveler named Lawberger and two of Aubry’s Mexican employees. This smaller detachment, venturing ahead of the main caravan, was now particularly vulnerable. The decision would prove fateful, leading to the tragic events that would define the White Massacre.
Having successfully navigated the most treacherous section of the Cimarron Cutoff, the group paused a few miles east of Point of Rocks in New Mexico. On October 24, their peaceful respite was interrupted by the arrival of a band of Jicarilla Apache and Ute Indians who approached them seeking gifts. The travelers refused their requests, sending the Indians away. However, the Indians persisted, returning several times, only to be rebuffed again. Frustrated and angered by these repeated rejections, the warriors launched a violent attack on the small detachment, killing all the men. Only Ann White, her infant daughter, and the servant were spared, taken captive by the raiding party. The White Massacre had begun.
Shortly after the initial attack, a group of buffalo hunters stumbled upon the scene of carnage. They, too, were immediately set upon by the Apache warriors, forcing them to hastily retreat. In their flight, they left behind two of their own who had been killed. Miraculously, one of the wounded hunters, a young boy, survived by feigning death throughout the attack. Once the warriors had departed, he made his way to Point of Rocks, where he recounted the horrific events he had witnessed. The news of the White Massacre spread quickly.
News of the devastating attack reached Santa Fe on October 29, prompting Indian Agent James Calhoun to take immediate action. He hired Encarnacion Garcia, an Indian trader with established connections, to negotiate a ransom of $1000 for the safe return of the captives. Aubry, upon reaching Santa Fe the following day, offered an additional $1000 for their release. He quickly assembled a rescue party comprised of Pueblo Indians and trusted New Mexican associates, determined to bring the women and child home.
The wheels of military response also began to turn. Troops were dispatched from Taos, where Captain William Grier organized a force of 42 men from his company of the First Dragoons, supplemented by 40 mounted New Mexican Volunteers under the command of Captain Jose Valdez. To guide the expedition, experienced frontiersmen such as Antoine Leroux, Robert Fisher, Dick Wootton, Jesus Silva, and Tom Tobin were enlisted. On the third night of their march, Grier’s detachment reached Rayado, where the legendary Kit Carson joined their ranks. The combined force then proceeded towards the site of the attack near Point of Rocks, arriving on November 9, more than two weeks after the initial White Massacre.
The troops followed the trail left by the raiding party for approximately 200 miles, eventually locating their encampment on the Canadian River, a few miles south of Tucumcari Butte. The soldiers launched a surprise attack on the camp in the early morning hours of November 17, scattering the Indians in disarray. In the aftermath of the assault, the troops discovered the lifeless body of Ann White, her remains still warm. Captain Grier concluded that she had likely refused to accompany her captors and was killed as the troops approached.
Kit Carson later recounted the grim scene in his autobiography: "We tracked them for ten or twelve days over the most difficult trail that I have ever followed… We finally came in view of the Indian camp. I was in advance, starting for their camp, calling for the men to follow. The [commanding] officer called a halt; none of them would follow me. I was informed that Leroux, the principal guide, told the officer in command to halt that the Indians wanted to have a parley. The Jicarilla started packing their goods for flight, and a shot was fired that struck Captain Grier, causing no serious injury. The captain ordered a charge, but the delay allowed all but one of the Indians to escape. In about 200 yards, pursuing the Indians, the body of Mrs. White was found, perfectly warm, had not been killed more than five minutes – shot through the heart by an arrow… I am certain that if the Indians had been charged immediately on our arrival, she would have been saved… However, the treatment she had received…was so brutal and horrible that she could not possibly have lived very long." Carson carried the burden of not being able to prevent the White Massacre.
Adding to the tragedy, Carson discovered a book in the abandoned camp, likely Charles Averill’s Kit Carson: Prince of the Gold Hunters, a sensationalized account of his exploits published earlier that year. Deeply saddened, Carson tossed the book into the fire over Ann White’s grave, a symbolic gesture of disgust at the romanticized portrayal of violence and the failure to save her life.
Following the attack on the encampment, the troops pursued the fleeing Indians for several miles, killing one warrior, seizing several horses, and capturing their baggage and camp equipment. However, Virginia White and her nursemaid were not found. As the troops began their return journey, they were caught in a sudden blizzard. The harsh conditions took a heavy toll, and Grier’s black servant was lost in the storm. On November 24, the exhausted and battered men staggered into Captain Judd’s camp at Las Vegas, New Mexico. Kit Carson departed the command for Rayado, while the remaining troops continued to Taos, arriving on November 29.
In the aftermath, William Bransford, a merchant in Mora, New Mexico, offered a reward of two horses and half the trade goods in his store for the safe return of Virginia White. However, many of the local traders and some of the Indians reported that the child was dead.
In February 1850, Congress authorized $1,500 to be paid by Indian Agent James Calhoun for the recovery of Virginia White. Calhoun dispatched Auguste Lacome, a renowned scout, trader, and mountaineer, along with Encarnacion Garcia, to investigate their location and determine if they could be ransomed. Lacome met with several Ute Indians affiliated with the Jicarilla Apache and confirmed the devastating truth: the child had been killed shortly after the attack on the camp, and her body thrown into a river. The servant was killed soon after, unable to keep up with the band.
The White Massacre sparked widespread outrage and marked the beginning of the Jicarilla War. The escalating tensions further culminated in the Wagon Mound Massacre in May 1850, where a group of mail carriers was killed.
In response to these attacks, Indian Agent James Calhoun finally received the reinforcements he had requested. In 1851, Fort Union was constructed near the intersection of the Cimarron and Mountain branches of the Santa Fe Trail. From this strategic location, the army relentlessly pursued the Jicarilla Apache until they were finally subdued in 1854. The White Massacre stands as a grim reminder of the cost of westward expansion.