Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California
The Washoe people, an indigenous Native American group, hold a unique place in the history and landscape of the Great Basin. Their traditional territory encompasses the breathtaking beauty of Lake Tahoe and stretches across the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, reaching eastward into areas of present-day Nevada, including Pyramid Lake and the upper valleys of the Truckee, Carson, and West Walker Rivers. The name "Washoe" itself, derived from the Washoe word waashiw (wa·ší·w), carries the profound meaning of "people from here," a testament to their deep and enduring connection to this land.
This article delves into the rich history, culture, and traditions of the Washoe people, exploring their semi-sedentary lifestyle, their complex social structures, and their interactions with neighboring tribes and, eventually, European settlers. From their intimate knowledge of the land and its resources to their resilience in the face of adversity, the story of the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California is a compelling narrative of adaptation, survival, and cultural preservation.
The Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California were traditionally semi-sedentary hunters and gatherers, adapting their movements to the changing seasons and the availability of resources. Their annual cycle involved spending summers in the high Sierra Nevada Mountains, where they would gather berries, hunt game, and fish in the clear mountain streams. As autumn approached, they would move eastward to the ranges, harvesting pinyon pine nuts, a staple food source that provided sustenance throughout the winter months. The winter and spring seasons were typically spent in the valleys between the mountains, where they could access a variety of roots, seeds, and smaller game. This cyclical pattern of movement allowed them to effectively utilize the diverse resources available within their territory.
Family played a central role in the social structure of the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California. Families lived and worked together, relying on each other for support and survival. Family groups typically consisted of five to twelve individuals, often comprising a married couple and their children. However, the Washoe society was characterized by a flexible and inclusive approach to family formation. Households could include parents of a couple, siblings and their children, multiple spouses, or even non-blood-related friends. The defining characteristic of a family was who lived together in the winter house. These winter camps generally comprised four to ten family groups living in proximity to one another, often moving together throughout the year.
Leadership within the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California was generally informal and sporadic, with each group having a leader known for wisdom, generosity, and truthfulness. Occasionally, someone with special powers to dream of when and where there was a large presence of rabbit, antelope, and other game, including the spawning of the fish, and would assume the role of “Rabbit Boss” or “Antelope Boss to coordinate and advise communal hunts. These leaders played a crucial role in coordinating communal hunts and making decisions that benefited the entire group.
The Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California were traditionally divided into three distinct regional groups: the Wel mel ti (northerners), the Pau wa lu (who lived in the Carson Valley), and the Hung a lel ti (who lived in the south). While each group spoke a slightly different variant of the Washoe language, they maintained strong connections and came together throughout the year for special events, ceremonies, and communal activities. These gatherings provided opportunities for families and groups from different regions to interact, exchange goods, and reinforce their shared cultural identity. Furthermore, individuals could switch between groups and there were often cross-group marriages.
The Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California maintained complex relationships with neighboring tribes. Relations with tribes bordering Washoe territory were mostly about tolerance and mutual understanding. Sometimes events lead to tensions and warfare. It was beneficial to both sides to keep their distance, but they also needed to maintain a relationship to exchange trade goods. However, they were also subject to pressure from the Northern Paiute, who had driven them into the area and, later, dominated them.
The arrival of European fur trappers and explorers in the early 19th century marked a significant turning point in the history of the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California. Initially, the Washoe people attempted to avoid contact with the newcomers, having heard stories about the impact of Spanish colonization on other tribes. However, as more and more settlers began to encroach upon their territory, interaction became inevitable.
The first documented encounter between the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California and non-Indians occurred in 1826 with fur trappers. The first written description of the Washoe was by John Charles Fremont in 1844. Fremont described the Washoe as being cautious of being close to them, but in time, when he showed no aggression, the Washoe came forward and gave him handfuls of pine nuts. Fremont described struggling through deep snow and being impressed by the Washoe’s skill with snowshoes. The Washoe willingly shared their knowledge of the land and eventually guided Fremont to a safe passage to California.
However, relations quickly deteriorated as settlers began to exploit the land and its resources, disrupting the traditional way of life of the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California. The summer of 1844, just a few months after Fremont had passed through, a group of trappers left record of having shot and killed five Indians (either Washoe or Paiute) for having taken traps and perhaps horses. The Indians probably took those things in order to discourage the trappers from entering their land. Most westward-migrating settlers had been conditioned by their experiences passing through the country of aggressively defensive tribes of the Great Plains and saw no distinction between different tribes. They expected the Washoe to be violent and dangerous and projected these characteristics upon them.
The tragic story of the Donner Party in 1846 further exacerbated the growing mistrust between the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California and the white settlers. The Washoe noticed the famed Donner party wagon train because they had never seen wagons before. They described seeing the wagons and wondering if they were a “monster snake”. The Washoe checked in with the stranded travelers a few times and brought them food when they could. Even so, in the face of suffering and starvation, the Donner Party resorted to cannibalism. When the Washoe witnessed them eating each other they were shocked and frightened. Although the Washoe faced hard times every winter and death by starvation sometimes occurred, they were never cannibalistic. Stories about the situation, some gruesome and some sympathetic, were told for many generations and were said to have added to the general mistrust of the white people.
The California Gold Rush of 1848 brought an unprecedented influx of settlers into Washoe territory, leading to widespread environmental degradation and the displacement of the indigenous population. By 1851, year-round trading posts were established, and colonizers became permanent residents on Washoe land. The settlers often chose to live on some of the most fertile gathering areas that the Washoe depended on. A few years after gold was found in California, silver was “discovered” in the Great Basin and the “Comstock Bonanza” lured many miners that had passed through back into Washoe territory.
The Euro-American perspective viewed land and its resources as objects of frontier opportunity and exploitation. In a short time, the colonizers had overused the pine nuts, seeds, game and fish that the Washoe had lived harmoniously with for thousands of years. By 1851, Indian Agent Jacob Holeman recommended that the government sign a treaty with the Washoe and wrote, “…the Indians having been driven from their lands, and their hunting ground destroyed without compensation, therefore – they are in many instances reduced to a state of suffering bordering on starvation.” All this happened in less than ten years after Fremont had passed through Washoe territory.
Despite numerous requests from Indian agents for a separate reservation, the government failed to protect the rights of the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California or to prevent the destruction of their ancestral lands. Settler’s livestock grazed the land intensely and grasses that had once provided the Washoe with seed were trampled and eaten. Commercial fishing was practiced on every stream and lake in the area and it was not long before the fish were depleted. At the height of the fishing, 70,000 pounds of fish were being sent from Lake Tahoe to Reno, Carson City, and Virginia City, Nevada. There were several attempts by the colonizers to stop the Washoe from fishing, but the Indians banded together and restrictions were relaxed. Even so, there were no longer enough fish for the Washoe to subsist on. Sagehens that used to “cover the hills like snow” were killed off by sport hunting as well.
The Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California were forced to adapt to a new reality, becoming increasingly dependent on the settlers for jobs and resources. Despite facing discrimination and hardship, they persevered, maintaining their cultural traditions and fighting for their rights.
In 1917, land was finally purchased for the Washoe in Nevada, leading to the establishment of the Carson Indian Community and the Dresslerville Community. An additional 20 acres were acquired for the Washoe and Northern Paiute families who lived in Reno called the Reno-Sparks Indian Colony. Most of the lands purchased for the Washoe were rocky and had poor soil, but the people moved onto these areas and built the best homes that they could. Many were one-room shacks without electricity and running water. Eventually, the government built larger four-room houses.
Under the Indian Reorganization Act, between 1938 and 1940, the Washoe acquired 95 acres in the Carson Valley that became known as Washoe Ranch. Finally, the Washoe had agricultural land where they could raise animals and food. After settling on their newly returned land, the Washoe found it difficult to adapt to reservation life. They were traditionally a free-roaming people that were now restricted and confined to boundaries and were under constant monitoring by Indian Agents that pressured them to renounce their ancient customs in favor of colonial ways of living. The superintendent of the Reno Agency attacked several traditional practices, including the girl’s passage to womanhood. Ironically the practices that he targeted as “heathen” and “immoral” like giving gifts were similarly practiced at Euro-American birthdays and marriages. Another superintendent announced that traditional games that involved exchanging money were not permitted on government lands or Indian reservations, but he made no proclamations prohibiting similar games played by colonizers such as poker. Government officials went as far as to prohibit the use of traditional Washoe medicine.
In 1951, the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California filed a claim with the Indian Claims Commission for their lost lands and resources, finally receiving a settlement in 1970. Also in 1970, a special act of Congress granted 80 acres in Alpine County, California to Washoe that had lived there for many years. This is now known as the Woodfords Community. In more recent years the tribe has been acquiring lands within their ancestral territory including, Frank Parcel, Lady’s Canyon, Babbit Peak, Uhalde Parcel, Wade Parcels, Olympic Valley, Incline Parcel, Upper and Lower Clear Creek Parcels. Some of the lands have been set aside as conservation and cultural lands for the Washoe People.
Today, the Washoe Tribe continues to thrive, working to preserve their language, culture, and traditions for future generations. Their story serves as a powerful reminder of the resilience and adaptability of indigenous peoples in the face of profound challenges.