West Virginia Coal Mining

West Virginia, often referred to as the Mountain State, boasts a rich and complex heritage deeply intertwined with coal mining. Since its initial discovery in Boone County in 1742, coal has played a pivotal role in shaping the state’s economic, political, and social landscape. These abundant bituminous coal deposits are found in all but two of West Virginia’s 55 counties, making coal a ubiquitous presence throughout the region. However, the coal industry has also been a source of considerable controversy and contention, igniting fierce debates over labor practices, environmental impact, and workplace safety.

Early Discoveries and Initial Exploitation

The existence of coal in Western Virginia was known from colonial times, with its official discovery documented during John Peter Salley’s exploratory expedition across the Allegheny Mountains in 1742. Salley reported finding a significant coal outcropping along a tributary of the Kanawha River in Boone County, which he and his companions aptly named the Coal River. This discovery predates West Virginia’s statehood by over a century.

Despite this early awareness, the widespread exploitation of coal was slow to materialize. Abundant wood resources and a limited manufacturing sector meant that coal was primarily used in small quantities by settlers near outcrops, blacksmiths, and iron forges.

Stimulus for Growth

The establishment of salt furnaces in Kanawha County, beginning in 1797, served as the initial catalyst for coal mining. In 1810, Conrad Cotts established the first commercial coal mine near Wheeling, primarily catering to blacksmithing and domestic needs. In 1811, the first steamboat on the Ohio River began burning coal, marking a significant shift in fuel consumption.

By 1817, coal had begun to supplant charcoal as the primary fuel source for several Kanawha River salt furnaces. The coal was used to heat the brine extracted from salt beds beneath the river. Throughout the 1820s and 1830s, the salt industry’s expansion fueled the opening of numerous mines to meet the growing demand for furnace fuel.

In 1840, the total coal production for the state reached approximately 300,000 tons, with 200,000 tons consumed by 90 Kanawha salt furnaces. Steamboats also consumed substantial quantities of coal, while factories and homes in Wheeling accounted for the remaining output.

Expansion and Early Mining Techniques

Over the next two decades, coalfields continued to develop as the demand for powering factories and fueling locomotives and steamships increased.

Mining during this era was arduous, with miners relying on picks and shovels to extract the coal. The extracted coal was then shoveled into baskets and sacks, which were carried away manually. As mining operations delved deeper, sleds, wheelbarrows, and carts were introduced, often hauled by oxen, mules, goats, dogs, and, at times, even the miners themselves.

Between 1840 and 1860, numerous coal companies were established, and corporations were formed to attract financial investments. As early as the 1850s, immigrants from Wales, England, and Scotland were recruited to work in the coal mines.

The Rise of Coal Oil and Railroads

As the salt industry began to decline, the demand for coal persisted, driven by the use of coal oil for lighting. In northern West Virginia, James Otis Watson, often regarded as the father of the West Virginia coal industry, dedicated himself to learning the intricacies of coal mining. In 1852, he established the Montana Mining Company and became the first operator in West Virginia to ship coal by rail, utilizing the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, which spurred a boom in the northern West Virginia coalfields.

By 1860, 25 independent coal companies had been established, employing over 1,000 workers.

The Civil War’s Impact

The onset of the Civil War brought a temporary slowdown to the industry’s growth. The Kanawha Valley mines were shuttered, and Confederate troops established camps in the valley, destroying many locks and dams along the river, which disrupted shipping. Further north, the Elkins and Fairmont fields remained active, supplying coal to the Union via the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. This coal was essential for powering railroad engines and providing heating in the East.

Post-Civil War Resurgence

Following the Civil War, a renewed interest in the state’s mineral resources ushered in a new era of development and growth for the coal industry. In 1867, West Virginia produced 490,000 tons of coal.

The commercial coal industry experienced significant growth with the arrival of railroads in the coalfields of southern West Virginia. In 1873, the Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad traversed the New River and Kanawha coalfields, connecting Richmond, Virginia, and Huntington, West Virginia. Many of these coalfields owed their success to the railroad.

Unlike the Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad, the Norfolk & Western Railroad and its land company acquired hundreds of thousands of acres of coalfields, which it leased to operators. These early operators often lacked substantial capital but were willing to undertake the arduous physical labor and high levels of risk involved.

Labor Strife and Company Towns

In January 1880, the Hawks Nest Coal Company Strike marked the first of many coal mining strikes in West Virginia. It was the first instance in which the West Virginia militia was deployed to quell a coal mine strike, setting a precedent for handling future labor disputes.

Throughout the 1880s, many mining operators established company towns, as most mines were located far from established settlements. These towns consisted of inexpensive homes, a company store, a church, a post office, and often recreational facilities for the miners and their families. These unincorporated towns lacked government institutions and were entirely controlled by the coal companies.

In these towns, miners could obtain advanced credit on their earned wages in the form of scrip, which could be used to purchase daily necessities at the company store. This simplified bookkeeping and eliminated the need for coal companies to maintain large amounts of currency on hand. The earliest coal scrip dates back to around 1883. Each mine had its own scrip symbols on the tokens, which could only be used at the local company store.

Housing was allocated to miners based on an economic and social hierarchy, with managers residing in better homes. The mine superintendent typically occupied a mansion with 10 to 20 rooms, situated on a large lot with trees and well-kept grounds. Lower-quality housing, often located on the outskirts of the community, was occupied by white miners. Black and immigrant miners were segregated in less desirable areas near the mine entrances or along hillsides.

Company towns varied significantly, with some being better than comparable independent communities, while others were filthy and decrepit. Some were harshly repressive, while others were largely free. The lifespan of a company town typically ranged from 50 to 75 years, or as long as the coal seams remained productive.

Increased Production and Safety Regulations

By 1883, the major rail lines were completed, and coal production totaled nearly three million tons. One of the major southern coalfields was the Flat Top-Pocahontas Field, primarily located in Mercer and McDowell Counties. This region began shipping coal in 1883 and experienced rapid growth.

In February 1883, due to the poor conditions in the mines, the West Virginia Legislature passed the first laws regulating coal mining in the state. The law provided for a qualified mine inspector, and the governor appointed Oscar A. Veazey to the position. Veazey’s duties included inspecting all mines for adequate safety conditions and preparing an annual report on conditions and activities. The law also mandated the reporting of all mine fatalities, including the victims’ names. In 1894, Veazey proposed the first comprehensive mine safety laws, but the Legislature did not pass the first laws until 1887.

As the coal industry expanded, most mining operations were supported by out-of-state capital and managed by out-of-state superintendents. These managers often brought in cheap foreign labor, particularly from southern Europe, and subjected them to long working hours, poor medical care, and generally inferior living conditions.

The first recorded mine disaster in West Virginia occurred on January 21, 1886, at the Mountain Brook Mine in Newburg. An open light ignited a gas and dust explosion, resulting in the deaths of 29 people.

By 1887, coal production had grown to 4.9 million tons. In 1890, the United Mine Workers of America state union was organized in Wheeling to advocate for better conditions.

Transformation and Mechanization

Massive capital investments poured into the West Virginia coal industry, leading to the region’s social and economic transformation. The successful operation of the mines required a large workforce, and in many areas, the population was too small to meet the demand for labor. As a result, companies recruited workers from outside the region and constructed company towns near the railroads.

The influx of miners from outside the state altered the ethnic and racial makeup of the region. In some southern counties, the combined population of foreign-born and African-American residents outnumbered native-born whites. These areas often benefited from previously unavailable or scarce social services, such as electric power, public schools, and public libraries. This growth also led to an increase in retail establishments and the number of professionals, such as doctors and dentists.

As the coal industry grew, mining methods and laws evolved rapidly. The legislature passed an act in 1897 expanding the number of inspection districts to four and creating the position of Chief Mine Inspector. That same year, the mining laws were printed in book form for the first time. Between 1897 and 1904, coal production increased by nearly 125%, warranting the establishment of a Department of Mines. In July 1905, the West Virginia Department of Mines was created, increasing the number of inspectors to seven.

Disasters and the Fight for Safety

As the C&O railway expanded its lines in southern West Virginia, coal became more accessible for marketing, and the coalfields prospered. The Logan Field, situated in Logan and Wyoming Counties, was developed in 1904 when the railway finally reached the area. Logan soon became the largest coal-producing county in the state, dominated by the Island Creek Coal Company.

The West Virginia Department of Mines was established in 1905 to enforce inspection laws. That year, six coal mining disasters occurred, the highest number in any year.

On December 6, 1907, the Fairmont Coal Company’s interconnected Number 6 and 8 mines at Monongah exploded, claiming the lives of at least 361 miners, making it the worst coal mining disaster in U.S. history. The explosions’ impacts were felt as far as eight miles away, with the force violently throwing people and animals and destroying numerous buildings. The cause of the explosion remains uncertain, but many believe that a spark from equipment may have ignited dust or gasses in the air. Of those killed, only 74 were classified as "Americans."

The resulting public outcry prompted Congressional action, leading to the creation of the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1910. That year, the first mine foreman certification examinations were required.

In 1913, when Union miners struck Paint Creek, the governor declared martial law after clashes between miners and mine guards.

The Modern Era

Large-scale surface mining began in 1914 with the development of massive shovels and draglines, facilitating the easier removal of rock and soil.

By 1917, coal production had increased to 89.4 million tons. The number of mine employees kept pace with production, growing from 3,701 in 1880 to nearly 90,000 in 1917.

By the 1920s, underground work was revolutionized by the mobile loading machine, which organized formerly independent miners into supervised crews.

Before the Great Depression of the 1930s, over 90% of the miners in southern West Virginia resided in company-owned towns that lacked civic institutions. Combined with numerous work-related grievances among miners, labor-capital relations in the coalfields were frequently strained. The pivotal issue was the recognition of the United Mine Workers of America as the bargaining agent for the miners. In addition to opposing unions, coal operators attempted to control labor costs within a constantly changing market.

Some of the most famous strike episodes in the history of the American coal industry occurred in West Virginia between 1910 and 1933, including the Paint Creek-Cabin Creek strike of 1912-13; the Mine War of 1920-21, which included the March on Logan, the Battle of Blair Mountain, and the Matewan Massacre; and the Monongalia-Fairmont coalfield wars, which occurred between 1927 and 1931.

In these disputes, the coal companies resorted to every means, legal and otherwise, to break the strikes and prevent unionization. The government generally sided with the companies. This period ended with the Great Depression, as the coal industry buckled in the general collapse of the American economy.

It was not until the Franklin Roosevelt era that the federal government intervened to assist the miners. The National Industrial Recovery Act was passed in 1933 to aid industry and labor during the Depression, establishing an eight-hour day and minimum wage provision, granting workers the right to organize unions, and providing incentives for companies to abandon costly and unpopular paternalistic policies. Subsequently, coal companies sold off the miners’ houses and ceased to provide community services, such as education, police, and fire protection, and abandoned many of the mining towns altogether.

Since the 1930s, the union has been a powerful force in securing welfare, retirement, and numerous other benefits for the miners.

After 1936, mechanization advanced rapidly, with shuttle cars, long trains, conveyor belts, and large mining machinery becoming common.

During the Depression and World War II, the coal industry introduced more labor-saving machinery. Miners resisted mechanization, which was overcome when the union negotiated an agreement with the operators. The union accepted a reduction in the number of workers but ensured increased productivity would result in higher pay and shorter working hours for the remaining miners.

Over the next half-century, tonnage and employment increased dramatically. By 1950, some 125,000 West Virginia coal miners lived and worked in more than 500 company towns built to house them and their families. There are no company-owned towns today, although remnants of many survive as privately owned communities.

By the early 1950s, a machine known as the continuous miner consolidated all of the basic steps in the mining process into one machine operation. The declining number of workers the increasingly automated coal industry required directly affected thousands of West Virginia families.

By the 1970s, mining was revolutionized again by the introduction of computerized longwall mining, which sheared coal off sections hundreds of feet long onto conveyor belts.

In 1950, there were 127,000 coal miners, but by the end of the 20th century, that number had plummeted to under 18,000 even though coal production reached record highs. Correspondingly, the high unemployment forced many miners to leave the state to search for employment elsewhere.

By the end of the 20th century, ever-larger earth-moving machines decapitated entire mountains in the controversial practice of mountaintop removal.

As the capital requirements increased, hundreds of coal companies either dissolved or were consolidated into larger corporations. By the end of the 20th century, a handful of major multinational corporations dominated the industry. Production grew under these conditions. In 1997, West Virginia reached a peak coal production of more than 180 million tons.

A Responsible Industry

Over the years, West Virginia has furnished our nation with the finest bituminous coal found anywhere.

At the same time, the West Virginia coal industry exhibits a sense of responsibility – social, health, safety, and environmental – that is unmatched anywhere in the world. More people are killed in farming accidents in the U.S. today than in coal mining accidents.

Today, 25% of coal mined is shipped to foreign markets where it is primarily used in steel manufacturing. The domestic steel industry uses another 15%. The remaining coal mined in West Virginia is used to generate electric power.