Zuni Witchcraft
The Zuni people, like many other indigenous tribes across the United States, held deep-seated beliefs in magic and witchcraft. These beliefs weren’t merely superstitious anxieties; rather, they were interwoven with the very fabric of Zuni cosmology, tracing back to the earliest creation myths. Within the intricate tapestry of their cultural heritage, the concept of Zuni Witchcraft played a significant, albeit often feared, role.
According to the oral traditions passed down through generations, the origin of witchcraft is linked to a pair of witches who emerged from the underworld. These figures, paradoxically, brought two essential gifts to the Zuni people: death, which served as a population control mechanism preventing the world from becoming overcrowded, and corn, the staple food that sustained the community. This foundational narrative illustrates a crucial aspect of the Zuni perspective on magic: it was not inherently good or evil.
Magical powers were seen as tools that could be wielded for various purposes, both benevolent and malevolent. The concept of a "witch" was inextricably linked to the concepts of life and human origins. The Zuni believed that witches existed alongside humans, not as separate supernatural entities, but as beings integrated within the natural order. This understanding contrasts with many Western interpretations of witchcraft, where witches are often perceived as outsiders or demonic figures. The Tewa people, neighbors of the Zuni, described witches as "of a different breath," highlighting their distinct physical and spiritual existence compared to ordinary humans.
These individuals, however, were believed to possess a unique and dangerous characteristic: they sustained themselves by consuming the life force of others. To survive, they were compelled to capture or indoctrinate the souls of their victims, essentially feeding on their unexpired lives. This grim requirement meant that witches were perpetually driven to kill, lest they themselves perish. The necessity for constant killing painted Zuni Witchcraft in dark colors.
This belief system had profound consequences for the Zuni community. Any significant misfortune, such as droughts, devastating epidemics, or destructive floods, was often attributed to the machinations of witches. Furthermore, any disruption of social harmony or violation of established behavioral norms was readily interpreted as evidence of witchcraft. In fact, at one point in Zuni history, witchcraft was the only crime explicitly recognized within their legal framework. The pervasive fear of witchcraft created an atmosphere of suspicion and paranoia, impacting social interactions and community cohesion.
The identification and punishment of witches rested with two distinct bodies within the Zuni social structure: the Council of High Priests and the Bow Priests. The Council of High Priests, revered for their spiritual authority and wisdom, held the responsibility of identifying suspected witches. However, due to their sacred position, they were prohibited from engaging in any form of violence. This task fell to the Bow Priests, a group associated with warfare and possessing the necessary authority to enforce the council’s decisions.
The Bow Priests were responsible for the meticulous examination of the accused and the careful review of any available evidence. If, after thorough deliberation, the accused was found guilty of witchcraft, they faced a brutal ordeal. The convicted individual was typically hung by their wrists, often behind their back, and subjected to torture until they confessed to their crimes. Interestingly, a confession, even if coerced, could potentially offer a path to leniency. If the accused revealed the supposed source of their power, they might be released or, at the very least, spared from execution. This suggests that the primary goal of the process was not simply punishment, but also the eradication of the perceived threat posed by witchcraft.
The arrival of the Spanish in the Southwest brought attempts to alter the cultural landscape of the Pueblo tribes, including the Zuni. Spanish authorities sought to suppress the indigenous beliefs, including their belief in Zuni Witchcraft. However, these efforts proved largely unsuccessful. The Zuni people fiercely resisted these attempts to eradicate their traditions.
Following the Pueblo Revolt, a significant uprising against Spanish rule, the Spanish authorities relaxed their restrictions on Pueblo culture. As a result, the belief in witchcraft persisted largely unabated. When the United States acquired New Mexico and other territories in the Southwest, the U.S. government sent Indian agents to monitor the Native American populations and promote assimilation. These agents documented numerous instances of Zuni witchcraft accusations and the punishments meted out to those accused.
The reports from these agents paint a disturbing picture of the consequences of this belief system. In March 1855, members of the Nambe Pueblo, closely related to the Zuni, brutally murdered three men and one woman, all accused of practicing witchcraft. The details of these killings were particularly gruesome, highlighting the intensity of the fear and hatred associated with witchcraft.
An 1880 report detailed an incident where an Indian agent witnessed a man suspended by his wrists, unable to touch the ground. The Zuni justified this torture by claiming that the man had caused sickness and death within the community. When the agent reported the incident to his superiors in Santa Fe, New Mexico, and a council was convened, the Zuni people defiantly asserted their autonomy, stating, "We have our government and laws, and what has happened is all right. We do not want you to interfere, but we want you to allow us the same privileges as you white people claim. If you will tend to your own business, we will tend to ours." This bold statement reflects the Zuni’s determination to maintain their traditional practices, even in the face of external pressure.
Another report recounted the tragic case of a Zuni man who killed a woman from his own pueblo, believing her to be a witch responsible for the deaths of his children. In August 1889, a severe drought exacerbated existing anxieties about witchcraft. Accusations flew, and a poor old man was targeted, accused of preventing rainfall. He was subjected to the agonizing torture of being hung by his wrists. After confessing under duress, he was released, but further threats forced him to flee the pueblo. A Mexican man, taking pity on him, offered him shelter.
The drought persisted, fueling the "witch excitement." In October of the same year, an elderly woman was similarly tortured until she confessed and implicated her sixteen-year-old nephew, described as a common thief. The boy was subjected to horrific abuse. He was repeatedly hung, beaten with sticks, and ultimately left hanging for an entire night and day, finally succumbing to his injuries the following night. Shockingly, a dozen Americans witnessed this gruesome event, and when one attempted to intervene, he was warned that it was "none American’s business."
An 1892 Indian Agent report further highlighted the ongoing problem: "This evil still goes on. The victims are often those who depart from the old pueblo customs and are inclined to the ways of civilized life. In the estimation of the ruling Zuni, what we call progress is the most criminal of offenses and must be trodden out by the most summary and vindictive tortures." The report detailed the cases of two progressive Zuni men who were seized, tortured, and forced to confess to witchcraft.
The agent noted that such cases occurred nearly every year, resulting in either death or banishment, with some victims being pursued and killed. While some Americans witnessed these atrocities, no Zuni Indian had been brought to justice. In a particularly cynical twist, three innocent men were arrested, likely scapegoats offered up by the true perpetrators to appease the authorities.
In the late 1890s and early 1900s, outbreaks of smallpox and measles were also blamed on witchcraft. During the smallpox epidemic, two young men were accused and nearly executed, but an American schoolteacher intervened, securing protection for them from soldiers. However, even this act of intervention was met with tragedy, as some of the soldiers and their horses later died of poisoning.
The U.S. government eventually intervened to halt the Zuni’s public torture and execution of suspected witches. However, the belief in Zuni Witchcraft persisted, and some convicted witches were reportedly killed in secret. The last known public witch trials took place in 1925, but the underlying beliefs remained entrenched for many years.
Today, while the overt acts of violence associated with Zuni Witchcraft are largely a thing of the past, the legacy of this complex and often brutal belief system continues to shape the cultural landscape of the Zuni people. It serves as a reminder of the power of belief, the dangers of unchecked fear, and the enduring impact of tradition.